Abstract
Ecosystem-based management (EBM) is essential to maintain healthy, productive and resilient marine ecosystems while sustainably providing ecosystem services leading to the goods and benefits humans want and need. Ecosystem status assessment is essential to the EBM process and there are many and varied methods (or tools) to undertake that assessment in support of EBM. This paper analyses these tools against the characteristics that make them most suited for practical implementation. A total of 34 tools were identified, including 18 generic and 16 specific tools. Information on the characteristics of the available tools was obtained via a structured online survey that was completed by 45 experts. The survey focused on: (i) the purpose and context of the use of a tool (e.g., the EBM elements it addresses, who uses it or in which context it is applied, and its relevance for marine governance); (ii) the type of assessment that the tool provides (e.g., which components of the accepted cause-consequence-response sequence are involved, what spatial and temporal scales are relevant to the assessment); (iii) the requirements of the tool in terms of data (type and variables), expertise/skills and other resources, and (iv) any strengths and weaknesses, including barriers for practical implementation. Similarities and differences in the expert responses were explored between the tools. Each tool was shown to have a specific combination of characteristics, which may make it more or less suitable for practical use depending on the EBM context and elements to which it is applied (i.e., one-size-fits-all does not apply). The tool suitability is also determined by the user-specific requirements for the assessment and this study provides a valuable means to inform the user and guide their decision on which tool(s) to use in the case-specific implementation of the EBM.