Abstract
Elevated partial pressure of carbon dioxide ( p CO 2 ) as a concomitant of global climate change may facilitate the establishment of future seagrass meadows and subsequently its benefit could be incorporated into techniques to increase restoration success. In five manipulative experiments, we determined how increased CO 2 affects the maturation of flowers, and the development of seeds and seedlings for the foundation species Zostera marina . Experiments tested the development from both seeds collected from non-treated flowering shoots (direct) and seeds harvested from flowering shoots after CO 2 exposure (parental carryover). Flowering shoots were collected along the western coast of Sweden near the island of Skafto. The seeds produced were used in experiments conducted at Kristineberg, Sweden and Dauphin Island, AL, United States. Experiments varied in temperature (16, 18°C) and salinity (19, 33 ppt), as well as duration and magnitude of elevated CO 2 exposure. Flowering maturation, spathe number, seed production, and indicators of seed quality did not appear to be affected by 39–69 days of exposure to CO 2 conditions outside of natural variability ( p CO 2 = 1547.2 ± 267.60 μatm; pH T = 7.53 ± 0.07). Yet, seeds produced from these flowers showed twofold greater germination success. In another experiment, flowering shoots were exposed to an extreme CO 2 condition ( p CO 2 = 5950.7 ± 1,849.82 μatm; pH T = 6.96 ± 0.15). In this case, flowers generated seeds that demonstrated a fivefold increase in an indicator for seed viability (sinking velocity). In the latter experiment, however, germination appeared unaffected. Direct CO 2 effects on germination and seedling production were not observed. Our results provide evidence of a parental CO 2 effect that can benefit germination or seed viability, but early benefits may not lead to bed establishment if other environmental conditions are not well suited for seedling development. Outcomes have implications for restoration; CO 2 can be supplied to flowering shoot holding tanks to bolster success when the purpose is to redistribute seeds to locations where beds are extant and water quality is adequate.