Abstract
A subsidy can directly enter a recipient ecosystem by either being consumed or being recycled to the nutrient pool with both pathways causing multiple indirect and potentially conflicting effects. Subsidy pathways are prone to anthropogenic stressors, which can impact the relative strength of the recycling and direct consumption fluxes. Current studies have mainly focused on a single coupling pathway, limiting our knowledge of subsidy effects on recipient ecosystems. We derive a series of models to predict the relative and interactive effects between consumption and recycling subsidy coupling pathways on the biomass and functions of a recipient ecosystem. We solved the models for analytical equilibria, and compared model predictions with and without each subsidy pathway. Our results show that the direct consumption and recycling coupling pathways of subsidies interact antagonistically, as the feedbacks between both pathways led to lower stocks and functions of the recipient ecosystem than a model which omits these feedbacks. These subsidy effects are consistent for each trophic level of the recipient ecosystem. Our models also predicted that consumption and recycling pathways of subsidies had differential effects on the recipient ecosystem. Recycling coupling pathway always led to equal or higher stocks and functions across recipient ecosystem trophic levels, whereas consumption couplings had alternating positive and negative effects depending on trophic level and characteristic of a trophic cascade. We suggest that future empirical and theoretical research on subsidies should consider various coupling pathways to provide a more mechanistic understanding of the effects of subsidies.