Abstract
Humans are implicated as a major driver of species extinctions from the Late Pleistocene to the present. However, our predictive understanding of human‐caused extinction remains poor due to the restricted temporal and spatial scales at which this process is typically assessed, and the risks of bias due to “extinction filters” resulting from a poor understanding of past species declines. We develop a novel continent‐wide data set containing country‐level last‐occurrence records for 31 European terrestrial mammals across the Holocene (c.11,500 yr BP to present), an epoch of relative climatic stability that captures major transitions in human demography. We analyze regional extirpations against a high‐resolution database of human population density ( HPD ) estimates to identify species‐specific tolerances to changing HPD through the Holocene. Mammalian thresholds to HPD scale strongly with body mass, with larger‐bodied mammals experiencing regional population losses at lower HPD s than smaller‐bodied mammals. Our analysis enables us to identify levels of tolerance to HPD for different species, and therefore has wide applicability for determining biotic vulnerability to human impacts. This ecological pattern is confirmed across wide spatiotemporal scales, providing insights into the dynamics of prehistoric extinctions and the modern biodiversity crisis, and emphasizing the role of long‐term archives in understanding human‐caused biodiversity loss.