Abstract
Large carnivore populations are recovering across Europe, likely influencing human–wildlife interactions in the areas where both human and carnivore activity overlap, like wildland–urban interface (WUI). We analyzed over 3500 cases of damage caused by brown bears, wolves, and lynx in the Polish Carpathians (2010–2017) to identify spatial and temporal hot spots and their determinants. Wolf damage was associated with sheep density and historical WUI, while bear damage correlated with permanent bear occurrence and historical WUI. Contemporary WUI showed a negative relationship with damage occurrences. Incident-level analysis revealed that forest cover was a key factor for both species, while wolf damage was linked to sheep density and bear damage to proximity to buildings (reflecting beehive locations). Our findings emphasize the need to integrate current landscape characteristics with land use legacies to develop proactive, site-specific policies that mitigate carnivore impacts and promote resilient coexistence.