Abstract
Novel interactions between invaders and native species that have evolved in their absence may impose strong selective pressures that drive species to extinction or prompt rapid co-evolution and learning. Here, we report on the effects that invasive cane toads, a toxic prey species, have had on freshwater crocodile populations in 7 waterholes of the Victoria River, Australia, before and up to 14 years after toads invaded. We recorded observations of crocodiles attacking toads, dissected dead crocodiles to determine if they had eaten toads and indexed the abundances of cane toads, live crocodiles and dead crocodiles. Following toad-invasion we observed crocodiles attacking cane toads. Dead crocodiles were only observed following the invasion of toads and 62% of the 71 dead crocodiles we dissected had toads in their stomachs. Counts of dead crocodiles showed a humped relationship with time since toad invasion and declined markedly after 3 years post-toad invasion. Live crocodile abundance declined sharply following toad-invasion, but this decline attenuated approximately 4 years post-invasion. The pulse of crocodile mortality and attenuation of the rate of crocodile population decline suggests that crocodiles have evolved or learned to enable co-existence with toads. However, crocodile populations have shown no sign of recovery in the 8–14 years post toad invasion. Our findings highlight that adaptation by native species to the presence of invaders may be imperfect and thus may not necessarily entail numerical recovery of populations to pre-invasion levels, but instead downward shifts to new equilibria due to ongoing interactions with invaders.