Abstract
An estimated two billion people live in areas presently affected by fragility, armed conflict, and violence. In many of these locations armed non-state actors (e.g. rebel groups) rather than the state are the primary governors (Word Bank 2024). An estimated 66 million live under the direct rule of armed non-state actors (Breslawski in J Glob Secur Stud 7(1):ogab017 2022). With the growing severity of climate impacts, armed non-state actors are increasingly engaging in governing over many aspects of climate change, including adaptation, displacement assistance, and the management of natural resources. By revealing the extent and range of these activities, we argue for the need to improve our understanding of the behaviours and motivations of non-state actors, especially the complex ways that climate governance is being integrated into their other —often violent—strategies. Better positioning armed non-state actors within the set of actors who provide climate governance is critical to supporting climate-resilient development to the populations who live in these areas while also managing the ethical and security dilemmas of engaging with these violent actors.