Abstract
Intracellular bacteria serve as a problematic source of infection due to their ability to evade biological immune responses and the inability for conventional antibiotics to efficiently penetrate cellular membranes. Subsequently, new treatment approaches are urgently required to effectively eradicate intracellular pathogens residing within immune cells (e.g. macrophages). In this study, the poorly soluble and poorly permeable antibiotic, rifampicin, was re-purposed via micro-encapsulation within inulin-lipid hybrid (ILH) particles for the treatment of macrophages infected with small colony variants of Staphylococcus aureus (SCV S. aureus ). Rifampicin-encapsulated ILH (Rif-ILH) microparticles were synthesized by spray drying a lipid nano-emulsion, with inulin dissolved throughout the aqueous phase and rifampicin pre-loaded within the lipid phase. Rif-ILH were strategically designed and engineered with pH-responsive properties to promote lysosomal drug release upon cellular internalization, while preventing premature rifampicin release in plasma-simulating media. The pH-responsiveness of Rif-ILH was controlled by the acid-mediated hydrolysis of the inulin coating, where exposure to acidic media simulating the lysosomal environment of macrophages triggered hydrolysis of the oligofructose chain and the subsequent diffusion of rifampicin from Rif-ILH. This pH-provoked release mechanism, as well as the ability for ILH microparticles to be more readily internalized by macrophages, was found to be influential in triggering a 2.9-fold increase in intracellular rifampicin concentration within infected macrophages, compared to the pure drug. The subsequent increase in exposure of intracellular pathogens to rifampicin leads to a ~ 2-log improvement in antibacterial activity for Rif-ILH, at a rifampicin dose of 2.5 µg/mL. Thus, the reduction in viability of intracellular SCV S. aureus , in the absence of cellular toxicity, is indicative of ILH microparticles serving as a unique approach for the safe and efficacious delivery of antibiotics to phagocytic cells for the treatment of intracellular infections. Graphical Abstract