Risk and benefit assessment of alien fish species of the aquaculture and aquarium trade into India - Atul K. Singh; Wazir S. Lakra (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2011)
There has been an increasing demand for alien fish species in India. However, environmental, socioeconomic and biodiversity issues are important considerations when regulating the unauthorized culture and spread of alien species. Information collected in the present review revealed the presence of over 300 alien species imported intentionally or illegally; 291 ornamental species, 31 aquaculture species and two larvicidal fishes. Field data demonstrated the widespread occurrence of some of the world’s worst invasive species, for example, Cyprinus carpio, Oreochromis niloticus, Aristichthys nobilis, Pygocentrus nattereri and Pterygoplichthys spp., in inland waters; other species are emerging as a threat to aquatic biodiversity. The benefits and risks of alien species were analysed and the impact was quantified using a simple developed ‘Fish Invasiveness Screening Test’ (FIST). Our information suggests that alien species, despite possessing some attractive culture characteristics, generally reduce the availability of local species and establish in natural water bodies becoming invasive and consequently adversely affecting fish biodiversity and aquatic ecosystems. In light of the adverse ecological impacts of alien species, we developed strategic regulations and quarantine procedures and advised aquaculturists to strictly follow them to contain potential and plausible menaces.

Genetic improvement of Nile tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus ) with special reference to the work conducted by the WorldFish Center with the GIFT strain - Raul W. Ponzoni; Nguyen Hong Nguyen; Hooi Ling Khaw; Azhar Hamzah; Khairul Rizal Abu Bakar; Hoong Yip Yee (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2011)
We mainly (but not exclusively) draw on research and development work carried out by The WorldFish Center (WorldFish). We review in detail the current state of development of a selection program that has had a main focus on growth rate and body traits. We also present some new, unpublished, information. There is evidence of sustained gains of 10–15% per generation over more than six generations. To date, these gains have not been accompanied by any undesirable correlated response. However, the prospects of altering sexual dimorphism and the shape of the fish appear to be very limited. We also examine the issue of an appropriate environment for selection. Not surprisingly, experimental evidence on genotype by environment interactions suggests that this is more likely to be of importance when the environments in question are markedly dissimilar. We argue that no universal guidelines can be prescribed with regard to the need for more than one selection program to cope with different production environments, but rather, each case should be examined in its own right. Finally, we discuss traits likely to be candidates for inclusion in future, more elaborate, breeding objectives for Nile tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus ), comment on selection methods that may be implemented in the future and conclude by stressing the need to maintain an effective population size in selection lines to ensure their sustainability over time.

Temporal variation of invertebrate communities in perennial wetlands - AM Suren; P Lambert (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Temporal variability of wetland invertebrates was examined at two scales—inter‐annual and seasonal—to determine whether it could confound results of spatially extensive wetland surveys. The inter‐annual study collected samples from the Bullock Creek wetland (BCW) each summer for 4 years; the seasonal study collected samples quarterly for 14 months from two wetlands (Mahinapua and Shearer). Water pH, temperature and conductivity were also measured concurrently. Three site groupings were identified in BCW, reflecting differences in physical–chemical parameters, which varied temporally but never converged. Few annual differences were found in invertebrate relative abundances in BCW, and ordination produced three sample groups, each of which contained distinct invertebrate communities. Water pH differed consistently between Mahinapua and Shearer. Relative abundances of nine taxa varied seasonally; however, ordination showed that both wetlands always supported discrete invertebrate communities. These results suggest that temporal fluctuations of invertebrates do not affect our ability to discriminate between wetlands.

The influence of natural variation in discharge on juvenile brown trout population dynamics in a nursery tributary of the Motueka River, New Zealand - JW Hayes; DA Olsen; J Hay (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
The effects of natural flow variation on juvenile brown trout population dynamics were investigated by biannual sampling over 5.5 years in the Rainy River, a tributary of the Motueka River. A large flood in late March (50‐year return period) substantially reduced the density (by 66%) and biomass (by 73%) of 0+ trout over autumn–spring, but the cohort responded with compensatory survival to achieve similar density and biomass by spring as in other years. A low‐flow event in February–April (return period >8.4 years), when 7‐day low flows fell to 56% of the 7‐day mean annual low flow (MALF) and were less than the MALF for 46 days, had no adverse affect on the population. We found no evidence for density‐dependent growth. However, there was strong evidence for a two‐phase self‐thinning response in density, with no self‐thinning occurring over summer (i.e. the 0+ population remained below carrying capacity) until a threshold mass of 22.08 g (length=123.7 mm) was attained in autumn after which severe self‐thinning took place over autumn to spring. The results indicate that over spring–autumn the population is insensitive to flow reduction and that over autumn–spring the effects of high (and probably low) flow events on local abundance and biomass are offset by compensatory (density‐dependent) survival. However, effects on the contribution of migrants to the downstream population remain unknown. The study identified ecological redundancy, which could be exploited for flow allocation. Significantly, it has shown that minimum flows equivalent to the MALF (often advocated by New Zealand conservation and fisheries management organisations) are not always necessary for sustaining juvenile trout populations.

Highly localised distribution patterns of juvenile sea cucumber Australostichopus mollis - MJ Slater; AG Carton; AG Jeffs (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Information on the environmental characteristics of the juvenile habitat of many deposit‐feeding sea cucumber species is limited, despite most fished species exhibiting rapid localised depletion. The current study combined large and small scale surveying techniques within a New Zealand harbour to identify areas with high densities of juvenile Australostichopus mollis , a commercially valuable aspidochirote holothurian. Data from detailed surveys were used to relate densities of juveniles and adults with measures of physical habitat characteristics including depth, sediment facies type, grain size range, as well as measures of chlorophyll‐ a, phaeopigment, carbon and nitrogen content of surface sediment. Results revealed a highly localised distribution of juvenile A. mollis focused on one site associated with an area of high adult density. Sites of high juvenile A. mollis density were characterised by sediment qualities favouring epibenthic detritivorous deposit feeding, including high nitrogen content, high phaeopigment:chlorophyll‐ a ratio and small grain size. The high‐density juvenile site had facies that were further characterised by the presence of large shell fragments (>10 cm length) of the horse mussel ( Atrina zelandica ), which may provide a unique settlement microhabitat for early juveniles. Unlike some other sea cucumber species, juvenile A. mollis shows no distinct spatial separation from adult sea cucumbers, no association with dense macroalgae and no clear preference for shallower depths than adults. Overall, the results illustrate the highly localised pattern of recruitment of this species to a widely distributed adult population, which may help to explain the lack of previous observations of juveniles in this species. These results indicate the importance of identifying and protecting what appear to be very specific juvenile habitats in deposit‐feeding sea cucumbers to ensure continuing recruitment to exploited populations.

New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research Dec 2010 - Doug Mountfort (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)

Revised diagnosis of Neosebastes capricornis (Teleostei: Scorpaeniformes: Neosebastidae), with new records of the species from Vanuatu - H Motomura; R Causse (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Two examples of Neosebastes capricornis , originally described from south of New Caledonia on the basis of a single specimen but not reported since, were found in the fish collection of the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. The specimens, which represent the first records of the species from Vanuatu and easternmost records of the genus Neosebastes, are described in detail. A revised species' diagnosis is provided.

First records of the Australian dog whelk, Nassarius ( Plicarcularia ) burchardi (Dunker in Philippi, 1849) (Mollusca: Gastropoda) from New Zealand - M Townsend; BA Marshall; BL Greenfield (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Nassarius ( Plicarcularia ) burchardi (Dunker in Philippi, 1849) is a common dog whelk in subtropical and temperate regions of Australia. In April 2009, two shells of this species were found in the central Waitemata Harbour, Auckland. On the 22 June 2009, a live specimen was found at an intertidal site near Henderson Creek on the western central section of the harbour. Between August 2009 and February 2010, a further 21 living specimens in a range of sizes were found across multiple sites in the central Waitemata Harbour. This species is currently adventive and its presence in the Waitemata Harbour suggests accidental introduction from Australia and subsequent survival. If this species becomes firmly established in New Zealand, there may be significant interactions with native species such as Cominella glandiformis (Reeve, 1847), with which it may directly compete for food, and the invasive mussel Musculista senhousia (Benson in Cantor, 1842), which it is known to eat.

Annual pattern of brooding and settlement in a population of the flat oyster Ostrea chilensis from central New Zealand - S Brown; S Handley; K Michael; D Schiel (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Temporal patterns of larval brooding and settlement were investigated in a flat oyster ( Ostrea chilensis ) population in Tasman Bay, central New Zealand. The proportion of the population brooding larvae and larval settlement rates were monitored over 26 months. A peak period of brooding activity began in late spring and continued through summer. Maximum rates of 17% and 23% of adult oysters brooding larvae occurred in November and December, and an estimated 55–78% of adult oysters incubated larvae over the entire summer breeding period. These proportions of brooders are higher than those previously reported for Tasman Bay. A very low level of brooding activity (1%) occurred during winter. Temporal trends in larval settlement closely tracked brooding patterns. Settlement was greatest between November and January, and there were very low rates in winter. The seasonal breeding pattern in the population was intermediate between northern and southern populations, confirming a latitudinal gradient of reproductive behaviour for O. chilensis in New Zealand. Results are useful in optimising the timing of substrate deployment in an enhancement programme for the oyster fishery.

The influence of ontogeny and environment on the diet of lookdown dory, Cyttus traversi - JS Forman; MR Dunn (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Research on trophic relationships is an important component in the move towards an ecosystem approach to fisheries management. The diet of lookdown dory, Cyttus traversi , was determined from examination of stomach contents of 239 specimens of 13.9–50.7 cm total length (TL), sampled at depths of 220–744m on Chatham Rise, New Zealand. The diet was characterised by the macrourid fish, Coelorinchus oliverianus , the natant decapods, Lipkius holthuisi , Campylonotus rathbunae , Sergestes spp., Notopandalus magnoculus , and Pasiphaea spp., and the galatheid, Munida gracilis . Multivariate analyses using distance‐based linear models, non‐parametric multi‐dimensional scaling and similarity percentages indicated the best predictors of diet variability were depth and fish length. Diet changes associated with depth were most apparent in the crustacean prey. Changes in the diet with ontogeny suggested four ontogenetic trophic units: pelagic ( 40 cm TL; benthopelagic piscivores/omnivores).

Conservation status of New Zealand freshwater fish, 2009 - R Allibone; B David; R Hitchmough; D Jellyman; N Ling; P Ravenscroft; J Waters (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
The threat status of 74 freshwater and estuarine fish present in New Zealand was determined. Fifty‐one native taxa were ranked of which 67% were considered Threatened or At Risk. A single species was classified as Extinct, the New Zealand grayling, which has not been observed since the 1920s. Four taxa were classified in the highest threat category, Nationally Critical, and a further 10 taxa as Threatened (Nationally Endangered or Nationally Vulnerable). Twenty taxa were ranked in the At Risk group with the majority ranked as Declining. Endemic galaxiids (Galaxiidae) dominated the Threatened and At Risk taxa. The majority (68%) belonged to the Galaxias genus, comprising 81% of recognised taxa in this genus and all five species in the genus Neochanna were also ranked as Threatened or At Risk. In addition to 51 native taxa, a further three fish species were considered colonists and 20 introduced species were classified as naturalised, although two of these are considered rare. The majority of the Threatened species occur in the Canterbury and Otago regions where a suite of rare non‐migratory galaxiids exist. Threat mechanisms that were identified as causal in the decline of freshwater fish species were the impact of introduced fish species, declining water quality, effects of water abstraction, loss of habitat via land‐use change and land‐use activities, and river modifications.

Diet and dietary variation of New Zealand hoki Macruronus novaezelandiae - AM Connell; MR Dunn; J Forman (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
The diet of hoki was determined from examination of stomach contents of 1992 fish of 26–112 cm total length (TL) sampled at depths of 209–904m on Chatham Rise, New Zealand, from summer research trawl surveys and seasonal commercial fishing trawls, during 2004–2008. Prey was predominantly euphausiids, mesopelagic fishes and natant decapods. Multivariate analyses using distance‐based linear models, non‐parametric multi‐dimensional scaling and similarity percentages indicated that the best predictors of diet variability were the position of the fish in relation to the subtropical front (STF), fish size and longitude. Pasiphaeids were more important to the north of the STF, and sternoptychid fishes and euphausiids more important in the STF convergence area. Euphausiids and sternoptychid fishes were important for smaller hoki (26–55 cm TL), myctophid fishes and natant decapods for larger hoki, and macrourids for the largest hoki (>84 cm TL). The longitudinal effect was characterised by pasiphaeids, euphausiids and sternoptychids to the west, and myctophids in the centre of Chatham Rise. Feeding activity was analysed using generalised additive models, and was found to vary with time of day, sample source (research or commercial), longitude, hoki size and depth. The variability in diet suggested hoki forage opportunistically within their preferred habitat and biological limits.

Evidence for discrete subpopulations of sea perch ( Helicolenus ercoides ) across four fjords in Fiordland, New Zealand - RJ Lawton; SR Wing; AM Lewis (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
In coastal populations of invertebrates and fishes, the distribution of discrete subpopulations is influenced by adult and larval dispersal, as well as by the effects of habitat heterogeneity on site fidelity or connectivity. Here, we examine evidence for spatial structure of sea perch, Helicolenus percoides , populations among four fjords in the Fiordland region of southwestern New Zealand. We examine patterns in adult morphology, length‐at‐age, δ 13 C and δ 15 N of muscle tissue, and trace elemental composition of whole otoliths as proxies for population isolation among the four inner fjord regions. A multivariate analysis of morphometrics reveals significant differences among populations from each of the four sites, suggesting existence of four distinct subpopulations. These patterns are consistent with observed differences in δ 13 C and δ 15 N, and length‐at‐age estimates among the four subpopulations. Differences in whole otolith concentrations of Sr, Ba, Mg and Li, and high classification scores based on the whole otolith elemental fingerprint are also consistent with significant subdivision among areas. Patterns across all four markers are consistent with discrete subpopulation structure of adult sea perch among the four study sites. These data indicate that the newly implemented network of marine protected areas in Fiordland is likely to contain discrete populations of sea perch.

Photothermal control of the reproductive cycle in temperate fishes - Neil Wang; Fabrice Teletchea; Patrick Kestemont; Sylvain Milla; Pascal Fontaine (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
Temperate fish species are annual spawners and mainly rely on annually cycling cues (temperature and photoperiod) to synchronise the three main phases of their reproductive cycle, that is, induction (initiation of oogenesis), vitellogenesis and the final stages (including maturation, ovulation and oviposition). This review synthesises how these three phases are controlled by specific temperature and photoperiod variations. The direction of the changes (i.e. decrease or increase) is the most important factor, although the amplitude, rates and timing of variations should also be considered to improve/optimise the quality of reproduction in aquaculture. In addition, we tentatively classified temperate fish species sharing similar temperature and/or photoperiod variation requirements for reproduction into three general functional groups. The first group (salmonids) is induced by increasing photoperiod. Vitellogenesis and the final stages are synchronised by decreasing photoperiod. The second group (percids, moronids and gadids) is induced by decreasing both temperature and photoperiod. A chilling period allows vitellogenesis. Increasing temperatures synchronise the final stages. The third group (cyprinids) is induced by decreasing either photoperiod or temperature. Vitellogenesis is faster at warm temperatures. The final stages require an increase in either photoperiod or temperature. This classification may help future research on the control of reproduction in newly cultured fish species.

Chinese Abstracts (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)

Swimbladder inflation and its implication to the culture of marine finfish larvae - Lindsey D. Woolley; Jian G. Qin (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
This review examines the initial swimbladder inflation in cultured finfish larvae and the mechanisms controlling body buoyancy and the distribution of larvae during the critical early development stages. The literature suggests that the body buoyancy of larvae affects their distribution in the tank and fish with low buoyancy are likely to sink to the bottom leading to mortality. Initial swimbladder inflation occurs in a finite period of the postlarval stage and a number of biotic and abiotic factors have been associated with preventing inflation during the ‘window’ period. In recent times larval rearing techniques have been advanced, but it is still a challenge to increase the initial swimbladder inflation rates and maintain larval positioning in the water column to reduce mortality. This review shows that various nutritional and abiotic factors can be manipulated in the culture of many finfish species to achieve high rates of swimbladder inflation and reduce deformations and mortality during early larval rearing.

Status and development prospects for indigenous freshwater finfish and crayfish farming in Greece - Costas Perdikaris; Evangelia Gouva; Ioannis Paschos (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
The Hellenic freshwater aquaculture sector has been dominated by the alien rainbow trout since the early 1950s. This species actually represented 96.5% of the total inland production in 2007. Other groups of species accounted for minor production volumes and, apart from common carp, most of them are also of alien origin. Therefore, an absence of production diversification, the presence of alien species, which in some cases have seriously impacted aquatic biodiversity, and emerging consumer sensitivity towards environmentally friendly practises require thorough re‐assessment of native species with promising aquaculture potential. This trend is particularly evident in Eastern Europe and Asia, where native species (particularly cyprinids) outcompete alien species. The current review aims to outline past and present farming efforts on native fish and crayfish species in Greece, which collectively belong to six families, and to discuss future development prospects.

Shrimp culture in inland low salinity waters - Luke A. Roy; D. Allen Davis; I. Patrick Saoud; Chris A. Boyd; Harvey J. Pine; Claude E. Boyd (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
Inland aquaculture of shrimp in low salinity waters is widespread in many regions worldwide. Owing to its ability to grow and survive in low salinity environments the Pacific white shrimp, ( Litopenaeus vannamei Boone) has become the candidate of choice for low salinity culture. Remediation techniques have been developed to improve the osmoregulatory capacity of shrimp reared in low salinity waters. These techniques have evaluated water modification strategies that improve low salinity waters used for production by adding potassium and magnesium fertilizers and dietary approaches that involve modification of the feeds offered to shrimp with supplements that might improve osmoregulatory capacity. Based on our own experience as well as what we found predominantly in the literature, it appears that modification of the rearing medium with potassium and magnesium fertilizers is more effective than dietary modification techniques at improving the growth, survival and osmoregulatory capacity of shrimp reared in low salinity waters.

Conservation status of New Zealand marine invertebrates, 2009 - DJ Freeman; BA Marshall; ST Ahyong; SR Wing; RA Hitchmough (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
A re‐evaluation of the threat status of New Zealand's marine invertebrates was undertaken in 2009, following earlier review of New Zealand's Threat Classification System and subsequent refinement of the national criteria for classifying threat of extinction to New Zealand's flora and fauna. Sufficient information was available to enable 295 marine invertebrate taxa to be fully evaluated and assigned to a national threat category. The 10 taxa at most risk of extinction (‘nationally critical’) were the giant seep clam Calyptogena sp., the primitive acorn barnacle Chionelasmus crosnieri , O'Shea's vent barnacle Volcanolepas osheai , the stalked barnacle Ibla idiotica , the four‐blotched umbrella octopus Cirroctopus hochbergi , the roughy umbrella octopus Opisthoteuthis chathamensis , the giant squid Idioteuthis cordiformis , the large‐egged polychaete Boccardiella magniovata and two gravel maggots, Smeagol climoi and Smeagol manneringi . The key threatening processes identified for marine invertebrates were fishing and land‐use associated impacts such as sedimentation. We identified no taxa that had improved in threat status as a result of past or ongoing conservation management action, nor any taxa that had worsened in threat status because of known changes in their distribution, abundance or rate of population decline. We evaluated a small fraction of New Zealand's marine invertebrate fauna for their threat status. Many taxa remain ‘data deficient’ or unlisted. In addition to the most threatened taxa, we recommend these taxa and their habitats as priorities for further survey and monitoring.

A standardised sampling protocol for robust assessment of reach‐scale fish community diversity in wadeable New Zealand streams - Bruno O David; Mark P Hamer; Kevin J Collier; Mike D Lake; Graham M Surrey; Kate McArthur; Carol Nicholson; Alton Perrie; Matthew Dale (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
The New Zealand fish fauna contains species that are affected not only by river system connectivity, but also by catchment and local‐scale changes in landcover, water quality and habitat quality. Consequently, native fish have potential as multi‐scale bioindicators of human pressure on stream ecosystems, yet no standardised, repeatable and scientifically defensible methods currently exist for effectively quantifying their abundance or diversity in New Zealand stream reaches. Here we report on the testing of a back‐pack electrofishing method, modified from that used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, on a wide variety of wadeable stream reaches throughout New Zealand. Seventy‐three first‐ to third‐order stream reaches were fished with a single pass over 150–345 m length. Time taken to sample a reach using single‐pass electrofishing ranged from 1–8 h. Species accumulation curves indicated that, irrespective of location, continuous sampling of 150 stream metres is required to accurately describe reach‐scale fish species richness using this approach. Additional species detection beyond 150 m was rare (

Sediment macrobenthos off eastern Waiheke Island, Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand - KL Clara Wong; Steve O'Shea (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Aspects of sea‐bed structure and benthic‐macroinvertebrate species composition, distribution, richness and diversity in coastal waters off eastern Waiheke Island, Hauraki Gulf, are reported. In contrast to the sole historical account of sea‐bed community structure from this same region, no widely distributed assemblages of species are recognised throughout it; no two sites share the exact same complement of species; and almost all sites are less than 80% similar in their taxonomic composition, most considerably so. Species richness and diversity are reported to vary with substratum type and depth, and spatially; species occurring within muds are the least diverse and species rich, followed by those of muddy gravels, and then gravels; many taxa prove common to the three substratum types; and dominance of taxa is recognised to decrease with an increase in substratum complexity, from muds to gravels, and species richness. With the exception of invasive marine species, apparent changes in the composition of assemblages throughout this region over the eight‐decade period that data span are considered artefacts of the way in which such assemblages were historically defined. We recommend historical accounts of sea‐bed community distributions throughout Hauraki Gulf be interpreted with caution, especially when attempting to use such schematic depictions to determine whether changes have occurred in assemblage composition.

Within‐reach spatial variability of snails and molluscivory by brown trout - Joseph R Holomuzki (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Linking habitat distributions of prey to the probability of predation is important to understanding consumptive effects of predators on prey populations. This study reports how within‐reach spatial variability of two snails, the hydrobiid Potamopyrgus antipodarum and the physid Physella acuta , was linked to habitat‐based predation risk by young brown trout ( Salmo trutta ) of different age classes. Potamopyrgus is endemic to New Zealand streams and lakes, where it commonly co‐exists with the invader P. acuta , but both snails are worldwide invaders to many freshwater systems. Examination of egested snails revealed Potamopyrgus and Physella were consumed in similar numbers within age classes. However, 10‐month‐old trout consumed, on average, fewer snails than 20‐month‐old trout, and 8‐month‐old trout ate essentially no snails, suggesting snails were a more important prey item for larger age‐1 fish than smaller age‐0 fish. No Physella were egested alive by any trout age class. However, 38% and 16% of the Potamopyrgus consumed were egested alive by 10‐ and 20‐month‐old trout, respectively, with some passing live after ~70 h in digestive tracts. Physella and the spiny‐shell form of Potamopyrgus were significantly denser on macrophytes than on stony sediments in midchannel, and these habitat distributions affected their odds of consumption. Risk of consumption by trout was ~10 times greater for Physella than Potamopyrgus on stones, but their risk was similar in protective macrophytes. Odds of consumption were similar for spiny and smooth shell forms of Potamopyrgus on stones, suggesting spines do not provide protection from large predators like trout. My results suggest that brown trout can potentially exert stronger population regulatory effects on Physella than on Potamopyrgus and that these effects are partly mediated by macrophyte cover.

Plastic debris and seabird presence in the Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand - Megan Young; Nigel J Adams (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
The potential threat of plastic pollution to seabirds within the Hauraki Gulf was assessed by determining its abundance and distribution at two different spatial scales and assessing the community of resident seabirds during July to September 2008. Samples of floating plastics within the gulf were taken during 66 trawls from the surface of the water in three regions within the inner gulf and Waitamata harbour. Within each of these regions, samples were taken in and outside of visually identified natural slick lines that are surface manifestations of small‐scale convergence zones. During each trawl, the identity and abundance of seabirds were assessed. Plastic debris was recorded in all three regions sampled with the greatest abundance being recorded in the harbour. Plastics and debris were also significantly more concentrated within natural slick lines. Both user and industrial plastics were identified and consisted of colours and lengths likely to be mistaken as food items for small to medium seabirds. Surface or near‐surface feeding seabirds in the gulf most likely mistakenly to consume plastics were fluttering shearwaters, Cape pigeons and Buller's shearwaters. However, these birds were most abundant in the area of the gulf where abundance of plastic pollution was lowest. The Hauraki Gulf is considered significantly less polluted by plastic debris than other severely polluted areas cited in literature.

Alien fish and crayfish species in Hellenic freshwaters and aquaculture - Costas Perdikaris; Evangelia Gouva; Ioannis Paschos (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
The diversity of ichthyofauna in Hellenic freshwaters is highlighted by the presence of 161 species. This actually represents 27.8% of the total fish species recorded in European freshwater, including both native and introduced species, suggesting that Greece represents a ‘hot spot’ for biodiversity. The introduction of alien species for restocking, the aquarium trade and aquaculture was responsible for the deliberate or accidental release of alien specimens into open waters and in some cases for establishing populations. In contrast, commercially valuable alien species (e.g. salmonids, cyprinids and more recently sturgeons) generated significant income to individuals, companies and to the national economy. This paper aims to review the situation regarding the presence of alien fish and crayfish species in Hellenic freshwaters and in particular in aquaculture and to flesh out issues concerning their aquaculture potential.

Chinese Abstracts (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)

Wastewater‐fed aquaculture in the East Kolkata Wetlands, India: anachronism or archetype for resilient ecocultures? - Stuart W. Bunting; Jules Pretty; Peter Edwards (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
Wastewater‐fed aquaculture is generally in decline. The 12 500 ha East Kolkata Wetlands (EKW) Ramsar site in peri‐urban Kolkata, India, is the only large‐scale formal system still operating and appears to demonstrate a high degree of resilience. This paper identifies aspects of wastewater‐fed aquaculture in the EKW that contribute to its sustained operation. The Driving Forces, Pressures, State, Impact, Response (DPSIR) framework was used to structure the assessment. Resilience within the EKW can be attributed to the scale of operation, adaptive production strategies that optimise resource utilisation while minimising risks, self‐organisation among stakeholders and timely legislation and institutional interventions to preserve the natural character of the wetlands. The introduction of externalising technologies, erosion of social capital and loss of traditional ecological knowledge threaten to undermine this resilience. Outcomes from this analysis should inform future management of the EKW to ensure that resilience is retained and enhanced.

Monitoring, assessment and management of fish farm environments in Japan - Hisashi Yokoyama (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
In Japan, coastal fish farming has become a well‐established industry. Intensive cultivation of finfish, however, generates large amounts of organic waste and nutrients, resulting in environmental deterioration in and around aquaculture facilities. Such negative effects have become increasingly conspicuous since the commencement of fish farming in the mid 1960s and its subsequent rapid development during the 1970s and 1980s. Various studies have attempted to measure the material fluxes in fish farms, to assess the potential environmental impacts, to determine criteria for the optimization of the location of farms and production levels, and to establish methods for improvement of aquaculture environments. In this review, research conducted during the last five decades in Japan concerning the flux of feed, environmental impacts of fish farming, factors controlling the degree of impacts, the upper limit of production and methods for improvement of environments is reviewed and current concerns for aquaculture environments discussed.

Factors influencing the growth and survival of larval and juvenile echinoids - Abul Kalam Azad; Scott McKinley; Christopher M. Pearce (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
Many factors can influence the growth and survival of larval and juvenile echinoids (e.g. diet type, food ration, stocking density, temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, water chemistry and settlement cues), but most of these factors have not been studied in detail with regard to most species targeted for commercial aquaculture production. This review summarizes the state of knowledge on factors influencing the growth and survival of larval and juvenile echinoids. Sea‐urchin larvae are typically reared with either Dunaliella tertiolecta Butcher or Chaetoceros spp . The optimum food ration is in the range of 3000–9000 cells mL −1 and 20 000–60 000 cells mL −1 for D. tertiolecta and Chaetoceros spp., respectively, the concentration depending on larval stage and stocking density. Larvae have been successfully cultured at densities of 0.25–5.00 individuals mL −1 , but the optimum level appears to be 1–2 individuals mL −1 . A variety of benthic diatom species, particularly Navicula spp., can serve as the initial food source for young juveniles. Older juveniles may be fed with various species of foliose macroalgae and/or prepared diets. Most research on larval and juvenile echinoids has been done using ambient salinity and temperature, but some work has shown the importance of temperature on growth rate.

Conservation status of New Zealand marine mammals (suborders Cetacea and Pinnipedia), 2009 - CS Baker; BL Chilvers; R Constantine; S DuFresne; RH Mattlin; A van Helden; R Hitchmough (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
The conservation status of New Zealand (NZ) marine mammals (suborders Cetacea and Pinnipedia) is reappraised using the 2008 version of the NZ Threat Classification System. The list comprises 56 taxa (named species or subspecies, and as yet unnamed forms or types) in the following categories: Threatened—eight taxa (five Nationally Critical and three Nationally Endangered); Vagrant—six taxa; Migrant—20 taxa; and Data Deficient—13 taxa. A further nine taxa are listed as Not Threatened. Relative to the previous listing, the threat status of two species worsened: the NZ sea lion ( Phocarctos hookeri ) was uplisted to Nationally Critical and the bottlenose dolphin ( Tursiops truncatus ) was uplisted to Nationally Endangered. No species was considered to have an improved status. With the uplisting of the NZ sea lion and the continued listing of the Hector's dolphin ( Cephalorhynchus hectori hectori ) as Endangered and Maui's dolphin ( C. hectori maui ) as Nationally Critical, all three endemic NZ marine mammals are now considered threatened with extinction. We considered future research or management actions that would allow the downlisting of the eight taxa currently listed as Threatened.

Age, growth and reproductive characteristics of gold striped amberjack 1 Seriola lalandi in the waters off western Kyushu, Japan - T Shiraishi; S Ohshimo; R Yukami (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Growth and reproductive characteristics of gold striped amberjack Seriola lalandi collected in the waters off western Kyushu from April 2003 to March 2008 were determined based on vertebral centrum readings and gonad histology, respectively. Translucent and opaque zones on vertebral centrum were identified, and the number of opaque rings counted. Von Bertalanffy growth parameters did not significantly differ between males and females ( F =0.28, P >0.05), and transformed value for the von Bertalanffy growth parameter FL ∞ and K were 1108 and 0.3091, respectively. The spawning period was evaluated to be from April to June for S. lalandi , based on the results from monthly changes in the gonadosomatic index and histological observations. Based on the relationships between the fork length and the developmental stage of testes and ovaries, the smallest fork length of male and female with mature gonads was 624 and 662 mm, respectively. The first maturation age was estimated to be 2 years old for both sexes.

Comparison and history of Polydora websteri and P. haswelli (Polychaeta: Spionidae) as mud‐blister worms in New Zealand shellfish - Geoffrey B Read (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Shells of commercially valued bivalves in New Zealand, Crassostrea gigas , Perna canaliculus and Pecten novaezelandiae , are damaged by blister‐causing Polydora polychaete species known to be close in morphology to the widely recorded oyster pest Polydora websteri Hartman. Recent New Zealand occurrences are here confirmed to relate to two species, P. websteri , and a second similar species, Polydora haswelli Blake & Kudenov, a new record for New Zealand, previously known only from Australia; the two species are described and compared. The worms have limited distributions, with P. websteri confirmed only for Pacific oysters ( C. gigas ) in northern New Zealand, although prior reports indicate it may also occur on scallops and have reached the northern South Island. Polydora haswelli has been found only in northern New Zealand, occurring on subtidal mussels and scallops and native oysters ( Perna canaliculus , Pecten novaezelandiae , Ostrea chilensis ), as well as co‐existing with intertidal P. websteri on Pacific oysters. The worms are not present in Foveaux Strait O. chilensis beds, a major source of past oyster exports to Australia. The history of mud‐blister worm outbreaks in Australasia is examined. While trans‐Tasman exports of live oysters from New Zealand were commonplace during the nineteenth century, there is no evidence that mud‐blister worms were present in New Zealand then. The earliest reports only date from the early 1970s and only from northern New Zealand, whereas a century earlier in the 1870s at least one of these pest worms had become widespread along eastern Australian coasts.

Shrimp polyculture: a potentially profitable, sustainable, but uncommon aquacultural practice - Marcel Martínez‐Porchas; Luis R. Martínez‐Córdova; Marco A. Porchas‐Cornejo; José A. López‐Elías (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
Shrimp polyculture is not yet a common practice among farmers; however, this activity represents an important alternative to solving and/or minimizing some of the problems that shrimp aquaculture has faced in the past two decades (environmental pollution, diseases and decreasing prices). In this context, many benefits have been achieved with some polyculture practices. Several species from diverse trophic levels have the potential to be co‐cultured with shrimps. A good knowledge of the species that are candidates for polyculture and an adequately designed culture system are the most important points to consider when co‐culturing shrimp with other species. The present paper is a review of the past, present and future of shrimp polyculture with other organisms.

Physiological and biochemical effects of conjugated linoleic acid and its use in aquaculture - Rui Rosa; Ana M. Andrade; Narcisa M. Bandarra; Maria L. Nunes (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
In the past few decades, the major compelling force in the study of marine lipids has been the need of the developing aquaculture industry to understand the lipid nutritional requirements of farmed fish so as to optimize production. At present, there is also increased interest to include health‐promoting nutrients (nutraceuticals) in farmed foods, such as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Conjugated linoleic acid, a group of positional and stereoisomers of linoleic acid (18:2), acts as a growth factor to promote a repartitioning of fat to lean, lower blood lipids, and shows anticarcinogenic, hypocholesterolaemic and anti‐atherogenic properties. In the present paper, we discuss current knowledge of the role of CLA in animal physiology and health and review advances in its application in fish aquaculture.

Organic aquaculture in Greece: a brief review - Costas Perdikaris; Ioannis Paschos (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
Organic aquaculture has recently attracted attention from both researchers and industry. Organically produced aquatic products are increasingly available to consumers and, in particular, sea bass and sea bream from certified farms in Greece have been exported and also channelled to large retail markets in Greece since 2008. The current paper briefly reviews issues pertaining to global organic aquaculture and national organic and conventional aquaculture production with a special focus on organic sea bass and sea bream production. Finally, future prospects and challenges are discussed in a wider context with regard to environmental sustainability, markets and further development of organic aquaculture.

Chinese Abstracts (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)

Application of econometric models for price impact assessment of antidumping measures and labelling laws on global markets: a case study of Vietnamese striped catfish - Nguyen M. Duc (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
Since obtaining membership to the Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation in 1998, Vietnamese fishery product exports, particularly frozen catfish fillets, to the USA have increased significantly, supported by a bilateral trade agreement (BTA) between the two countries signed in December 2001. With similarities in texture and taste, but of lower price, catfish imports from Vietnam were a concern for US catfish producers. To protect its catfish sector, the US Congress passed a labelling law in November 2002 restricting the use of the word ‘catfish’ to only those fish of the Ictaluridae family, which is farmed popularly in southern states of the USA. Antidumping measures, a trade policy permitted by the World Trade Organization, were also issued by the USA in 2003 leading to tariffs ranging from 44.66% to 63.88% levied on frozen fillet catfish imported from Vietnam. This paper uses selected econometric models to examine the effects of the US laws and policy on prices and trade flows, as a part of a comparative case study of primary production. The models show that the antidumping tariff raised the US domestic price of processed catfish and lowered the Vietnamese export price. The fall in the price of Vietnamese catfish caused by the US tariff raised market demand outside the USA and consequently boosted the Vietnamese export volume of catfish. Empirical models with monthly data from January 1999 to December 2005 examined the effects of the BTA, the US antidumping and the labelling laws on the price and trade flow of frozen catfish fillets. Although the BTA benefited US consumers, the antidumping measures were not favourable to them or to US farmers. The labelling law in reality harmed the US catfish industry.

Spatial variation in life history characteristics of snapper ( Pagrus auratus ) within Shark Bay, Western Australia - Gary Jackson; Jeffrey V Norriss; Michael C Mackie; Norman G Hall (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Life history characteristics of snapper ( Pagrus auratus ) were found to vary at fine spatial scales (less than tens of kilometres) in the sub‐tropical waters of Shark Bay, Western Australia, from research undertaken between 1997 and 2004. Differences in the timing and duration of the spawning season, length and age at maturity, and maximum age and growth between snapper from the Eastern Gulf, Denham Sound and Freycinet Estuary were attributed to spatial differences in environmental conditions and density‐dependent responses to fishing‐induced changes in spawning biomass. Such fine‐scale spatial variation in the biological characteristics of snapper is consistent with results of previous stock identification studies and further supports the geographic scale at which local snapper stocks are managed to protect both stock productivity and genetic diversity.

Identification of non‐indigenous marine macroalgae from New Zealand aquaria outlets - Kirsty F Smith; Hernando Acosta; Judith E Broom; Lesley L Rhodes (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Most vector management and research on marine bioinvasions has focused on shipping‐related pathways. More recently, less obvious mechanisms, such as the aquarium trade, have been recognised as important mechanisms for marine invasions, such as for the alga Caulerpa taxifolia . In this study, macroalgal specimens were collected from aquarium shops in Auckland and Nelson. Specimens were initially identified morphologically as C. taxifolia, C. racemoasa, Coelarthrum sp. and Cryptonemia sp. DNA sequencing corroborated the identification of the Caulerpa specimens. DNA sequencing also revealed that a specimen identified as Coelarthrum sp. by morphological features was in fact most probably Chamaebotrys sp. Because of the small number of Cryptonemia sequences in GenBank for comparison, only a tentative identification for this red alga could be made. Our findings of non‐native macroalgae, including C. taxifolia , in aquarium shops in New Zealand show that even strict quarantine procedures cannot completely prevent the importation of non‐indigenous species. Therefore, early detection, which begins with species identification, is essential to design effective control and eradication programmes.

Storm fine sediment flux from catchment to estuary, Waitetuna‐Raglan Harbour, New Zealand - Lucy A McKergow; Mark Pritchard; Alexander H Elliott; Maurice J Duncan; Alastair K Senior (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
‘Source to sea’ storm sediment studies are rare. We constructed a fine sediment budget and examined the timing of sediment delivery from the Waitetuna catchment (167 km 2 ) to its estuary (an arm of the Raglan Harbour, New Zealand) for a single large (10‐year return period rainfall) storm. Storm flows were intensively sampled at five small ( 2 ) catchments, six sites on the main‐stem of the stream network, and at two upper estuary sites. Silt (4–62 µm) was the dominant particle size transported during the flood event (80–90% of total suspended sediment), despite the catchment having high ( c. 40%) clay content soils. During the storm event, about 3700 t of fine sediment (300 kg/ha) exited the catchment and about 25% of the sediment was retained within the upper 3 km of the estuary. Half of the fine sediment load was supplied by a 29‐km 2 sub‐catchment, probably sourced from bank erosion. The bulk (70%) of the sediment load entered the estuary over a 12‐h period, and the estuary water column quickly (four tidal cycles) reset to pre‐flood conditions.

Climate change and long‐term data are the hot topics at Auckland conference on ‘Climate and Oceans’ - Mark J Costello; Mary Livingston; Colin McLay; Ann McCrone; Carolyn Lundquist (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)

Erratum (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)

Consequences of human‐mediated marine intrusions on the zooplankton community of a temperate coastal lagoon - Ian C Duggan; Michelle A White (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Barrier bars separating lagoons from oceans are frequently breached as a management tool to prevent flooding of terrestrial ecosystems. The effects of such human‐mediated openings on zooplankton have been investigated only in one tropical system. We investigated the temperate Waituna Lagoon, New Zealand, over a 2‐year period when the barrier bar was ‘artificially’ breached on three occasions. Increases in salinity associated with opening of the barrier bars greatly influenced zooplankton community composition, and recovery of communities was dependent on the rate at which salinity returned to pre‐disturbance conditions. As such, resilience of zooplankton in coastal lagoons is a function of the lagoon conditions returning to those experienced prior to barrier breach, rather than being a result of the zooplankton community simply recovering from a single defined disturbance event. In contrast to the tropical lagoon studies, temperature in Waituna Lagoon was inferred to explain a significant proportion of the variability in zooplankton community composition, independent of salinity. Appropriate timing for the opening of barrier bars by management authorities in temperate lagoons, which would allow the greatest opportunity for freshwater zooplankton communities to recover rapidly, will rely on determining the best time for rapid barrier bar reformation and high freshwater inflow rates (i.e. the recovery of zooplankton relies on return to initial conditions). However, such an approach is in direct conflict with the opening of barrier bars for management of water levels.

Algal and invertebrate bioindicators detect sewage effluent along the coast of Titahi Bay, Wellington, New Zealand - Bruce D Dudley; Jeffrey S Shima (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2010)
Sewage effluent contains both dissolved and particulate matter that can affect coastal ecosystems and cascade through food webs. We used δ 15 N and δ 13 C ratios to explore performance of a kelp ( Carpophyllum maschalocarpum ) and two invertebrates (a grazing isopod, Amphoroidea media , and a filter‐feeding crab, Petrolisthes elongatus ) as bioindicators along a gradient of sewage exposure. These species vary in trophic status and, consequently, are likely to assimilate sewage constituents differently into food webs. δ 15 N values in C. maschalocarpum and A. media were highest near the sewage outfall and decreased with increasing distance from the outfall. δ 13 C values in these two species did not appear to be reliable predictors of sewage concentrations in seawater. In contrast, δ 13 C ratios for P. elongatus were consistently depleted at sites nearest the sewage outfall, indicating the consumption of 13 C‐depleted sewage particulates. These results suggest there is value in multiple‐isotope and multi‐species bioindicator approaches both for detecting sewage dispersal patterns and understanding the incorporation of sewage‐derived nutrients into food webs.

Chinese Abstracts (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)

The first family‐based breeding program in aquaculture - Trygve Gjedrem (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
Individual selection for growth rate has been practised for aquatic species for many years. However, the use of a small number of breeders without records of parentage frequently results in inbreeding depression. AKVAFORSK began the first ever family‐based breeding program in aquaculture in 1975 for Atlantic salmon in Norway. The first steps of the program involved estimating the phenotypic and genetic parameters of economically important traits and generating a base population by crossing wild salmon strains. As information on quantitative genetics for salmon was not available, the breeding program started by selecting for body weight. As information was gathered, other traits such as age at sexual maturation, disease resistance and product quality were added to the selection index. The salmon industry was invited to participate in the breeding program, which has been managed by Aqua Gen AS since 1993. The genetic gain achieved has been estimated at approximately 14% per generation with a global benefit/cost ratio estimated at 15/1.

Announcement (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)

Effects of nutrition on larval growth and survival in bivalves - Robert Marshall; Scott McKinley; Christopher M. Pearce (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
This review examines the nutritional factors that influence the growth and survival of larval bivalves. Factors considered include feed form (live phytoplankton, preserved phytoplankton and artificial feeds) and feed biochemical composition (protein, lipid, carbohydrate and essential fatty acids). These factors, as they relate to larval production, are discussed in terms of growth and survival rates. To facilitate comparisons among larval studies, growth rates and feeding rates are standardized to common units. In addition, the standardized results for larvae of the Pacific oyster ( Crassostrea gigas Thunberg) are analysed using linear regression techniques to determine the strength of the correlations between daily doses of biochemical feed components and daily growth rates. Piecewise linear spline modelling is used to determine maximum effective dose response, the point where feeding additional biochemical components to the larvae yields no significant improvements in growth. Derived from these analyses are suggested daily rations of lipid, protein, carbohydrate, eicosapentanoic acid, docosahexanoic acid and energy for larvae of C. gigas .

Demand for aquaculture development: perspectives from Bangladesh for improved planning - Madan M. Dey; Md F. Alam; Manik L. Bose (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2010)
Recently there has been a paradigm shift in the focus of aquaculture planning from a top‐down to a demand‐driven approach. Demand‐driven planning for aquaculture development emphasizes that aquaculture development must meet the needs and priorities of stakeholders, and requires processing vast amounts of information ranging from opinions and verbalized needs from primary stakeholders to quantitative data on demand from various stakeholders. However, such an approach is rarely adopted in aquaculture development. In this review, the demand for aquaculture in Bangladesh from different stakeholders, based on an extensive literature review supplemented with an analysis of primary and secondary data, is presented. The analysis shows that gaps persist between the fish yields obtained at research stations and in farmers’ fields and that inefficiency exists among aquaculture operators in Bangladesh. Fish farmers need better technology and enabling environments to reduce yield losses and to improve efficiency in production. Aquaculture planners and policymakers also need to consider demand from different consumer groups at home and abroad.

Trematode parasites of Otago Harbour (New Zealand) soft‐sediment intertidal ecosystems: Life cycles, ecological roles and DNA barcodes - Tommy L.F. Leung; Kirsten M. Donald; Devon B. Keeney; Anson V. Koehler; Robert C. Peoples; Robert Poulin (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Parasites, in particular trematodes (Platyhelminthes: Digenea), play major roles in the population dynamics and community structure of invertebrates on soft‐sediment mudflats. Here, we provide a list of the 20 trematode species currently known to infect molluscs, crustaceans and polychaetes from Otago Harbour (New Zealand) soft‐sediment intertidal areas, as well as information on their transmission modes, life cycles, andknown ecological impacts. Several of the host‐parasite species combinations recorded here are reported for the first time. We also provide DNA barcodes, based on sequences of the cytochrome oxidase subunit l (CO1) gene, for 19 of the 20 trematode species, to facilitate future identification of these parasites in marine ecological studies.

Metal contamination in aquatic environments: science and lateral management. By Samuel N.Luoma and Philip S.Rainbow. Published in 2008 by Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom (www.cambridge.org). 573 p, hardcover. ISBN 978–0‐521–86057–4. Price au$200.00. - Jon S. Harding (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)

Phylogeography of New Zealand's coastal benthos - P. M. Ross; I. D. Hogg; C. A. Pilditch; C. J. Lundquist (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
During the past 30 years, 42 molecular studies have been undertaken in New Zealand to examine the phylogeography of coastal benthic invertebrates and plants. Here, we identify generalities and/or patterns that have emerged from this research and consider the processes implicated in generating genetic structure within populations. Studies have used various molecular markers and examined taxonomic groups with a range of life histories and dispersal strategies. Genetic disjunctions have been identified at multiple locations, with the most frequently observed division occurring between northern and southern populations at the top of the South Island. Although upwelling has been implicated as a cause of this disjunction, oceanographic evidence is lacking and alternative hypotheses exist. A significant negative correlation between larval duration and genetic differentiation ( r 2 = 0.39, P 0.001, n = 29) across all studies suggests that larval duration might be used as a proxy for dispersal potential. However, among taxa with short larval durations (

Testing use of mitochondrial COI sequences for the identification and phylogenetic analysis of New Zealand caddisflies (Trichoptera) - Ian D. Hogg; Brian J. Smith; Jonathan C. Banks; Jeremy R. Dewaard; Paul D. N. Hebert (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
We tested the hypothesis that cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) sequences would successfully discriminate recognised species of New Zealand caddisflies. We further examined whether phylogenetic analyses, based on the COI locus, could recover currently recognised superfamilies and suborders. COI sequences were obtained from 105 individuals representing 61 species and all 16 families of Trichoptera known from New Zealand. No sequence sharing was observed between members of different species, and congeneric species showed from 2.3 to 19.5% divergence. Sequence divergence among members of a species was typically low (mean = 0.7%; range 0.0–8.5%), but two species showed intraspecific divergences in excess of 2%. Phylogenetic reconstructions based on COI were largely congruent with previous conclusions based on morphology, although the sequence data did not support placement of the purse‐cased caddisflies (Hydroptilidae) within the uncased caddisflies, and, in particular, the Rhyacophiloidea. We conclude that sequence variation in the COI gene locus is an effective tool for the identification of New Zealand caddisfly species, and can provide preliminary phylogenetic inferences. Further research is needed to ascertain the significance of the few instances of high intra‐specific divergence and to determine if any instances of sequence sharing will be detected with larger sample sizes.

Calibrations to estimate absolute numbers of New Zealand fur seal ( Arctocephalus forsteri ) pups from direct counts - Deborah M. Watson; Chris Lalas; Philip J. Seddon (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Annual direct counts of seal pups can indicate long‐term trends in population size, but mark‐recapture estimates are needed to deduce absolute numbers. A calibration between results from these two methods would facilitate the use of direct counts to estimate absolute numbers, an outcome that is relatively quick, cheap and minimises disturbance of animals. Mark‐recapture estimates for the numbers of New Zealand fur seal ( Arctocephalus forsteri ) pups in 2003 at 10 colonies at Otago, southeastern New Zealand, were compared with independent single counts at the same colonies. A single ratio to estimate absolute numbers (y) from direct counts x was not statistically significant. Instead, two ratios were deduced, based on differences in habitat among colonies: y = 1.51 x for colonies with hiding places for pups and y = 0.96 x for colonies without hiding places. Application of these calibrations and their 95% prediction intervals produce estimates and ranges for the absolute numbers of pups from single annual counts.

Ecology of common bully ( Gobiomorphus cotidianas ) in the Tarawera and Rangitaiki rivers: Isolation by inland distance or anthropogenic discharge? - Natalie A. Bleackley; Michael J. Landman; Nicholas Ling (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Previous research has identified distinct genetic, life‐history and reproductive differences between populationsof common bully ( Gobiomorphus cotidianus ) upstream and downstream of a pulp and paper mill outfall on the Tarawera River in the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand. This study investigated the distribution of common bully in the Tarawera River by examining fish collected from upstream (37 km inland) and downstream (20 km inland) locations and comparing them to fish from similar inland locations (40 km and 17 km inland, respectively) in the nearby Rangitaiki River. Reproductive divergence was observed between upstream and downstream sites of both rivers by differing annual trends in gonadosomatic index. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes confirmed residency at each sampling site and otolith microchemistry demonstrated different life‐history strategies between upstream and downstream populations. Diadromous recruits dominated in both downstream river populations, with a general disappearance of diadromy upstream. A mixture of diadromous and non‐diadromous fish were found in the upstream Rangitaiki River, whereas diadromous recruits were absent in the upstream Tarawera River. A reduction in oculoscapular canal structures also coincided with loss of diadromy in fish from both rivers. A behavioural study to determine whether pulp and paper mill effluent may deter fish migration within the Tarawera River demonstrated a strong avoidance of effluent, but only at concentrations (>25%) greater than those that naturally occur in the river (

Feeding habits of the ommastrephid squid Nototodarus sloanii on the Chatham Rise, New Zealand - Matthew R. Dunn (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The diet of the squid Nototodarus sloanii was determined from examination of stomach contents of 388 specimens of 14.3–41.0 cm dorsal mantle length sampled at depths of 211–760 m on the Chatham Rise, New Zealand. Prey items were predominantly mesopelagic fishes, with some crustaceans and cephalopods. The most important prey species identified was Maurolicus australis, followed by Lampanyctodes hectoris, and unidentified squids (Teuthoidea). Multivariate analyses using distance‐based linear models, non‐parametric multi‐dimensional scaling, analysis of similarities, and similarity percentages, indicated crustaceans were more important in the diet of smaller squid (83–480 g), the fish component of the diet was dominated by L. hectoris on the east Chatham Rise and M. australis on the west Chatham Rise, and there may be a difference in diet with sex, with crustaceans and cephalopods more important for females. The results indicated that N. sloanii, similar to other ommastrephid squids, foraged primarily in the mesopelagic layers.

Can beak shape help to research the life history of squid? - Anthony E. Aldridge (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Elucidating biological shape and concomitant growth increments is an important precursor for understanding life history and chronology. Logarithmic spiral and deviations from spiral are proposed for investigating growth variation in upper squid beaks. Twenty‐three beaks of two large squid species Kondakovia longimana and Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni were photographed to a resolution between 20 and 30 pixels per mm in the sagittal plane, then digitised within a standard deviation of 0.05 mm. Estimating logarithmic spirals by nonlinear least squares provided a close fit ( r 2 > 98%) to every beak. Deviations from spiral ranged up to 1 mm on individual beaks, and were significantly non‐random, often with a prominent spike then dip midway (20 to 40 mm) from a beak tip. Species differed both in the distance of spike and dip from the beak tip and also the distance between the spike and dip. Change from inshore to oceanic life or in trophic level are postulated causes of these non‐random deviations. The method of fitting spirals and deviation from spiral growth is a quick, nondestructive complement to sectioning. Uncertainty on original squid size, maturity and gender restrict conclusions on the beaks to being preliminary in nature. Further research is recommended to confirm and extend the new concept of spiral shape and growth deviations for investigating squid lifestyle.

Growth, feed conversion and faecal discharge of yellowtail kingfish ( Seriola lalandi ) fed three commercial diets - Damian Moran; Stephen J. Pether; Peter S. Lee (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
A study was undertaken to provide data on growth, feed conversion ratio (FCR) and faecal discharge of yellowtail kingfish ( Seriola lalandi ) fed three commercial diets used previously to culture this species in New Zealand. Fish were raised in tanks from 0.4 to 1.2 kg over the spring (water temperature 14–17°C) and summer (17–22°C) periods. There were considerable differences in volumetric and mass‐specific feed intake, and energy intake amongst diets. Daily crude protein intake was similar amongst diets, although it increased from the cold (4.05–4.50 g protein kg −1 day −1 ) to warm period (6.48–7.67 g protein kg −1 day −1 ). The biological and economical FCR varied with diet (BFCR 1.22–2.17, EFCR 1.30–2.62), as did the cost of feed per unit biomass produced (NZ$38–3.78 kg −1 ). Growth rates were broadly similar amongst diets, and the warmer summer temperature period greatly improved both growth (increase from 0.51–0.64% to 1.18–1.23% mass gain day −1 ) and BFCR (decrease from 1.37–2.17 to 1.22–1.46). The Salmofood ESF diet resulted in only half of the faecal setüeable solids and settleable total nitrogen (T N) and total phosphorus (T P) output compared with Skretting NME, which was in turn only half or less of that of Reliance SF

Risks of shifting baselines highlighted by anecdotal accounts of New Zealand's snapper ( Pagrus auratus ) fishery - Darren M. Parsons; Mark A. Morrison; Alison B. MacDiarmid; Bruce Stirling; Phillip Cleaver; Ian W.G. Smith; Maria Butcher (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Anecdotal data sources may constitute an important component of the information available about an exploited species, as record keeping may not have occurred until after exploitation began. Here, we aimed to fill any gaps in the exploitative history of the sparid snapper ( Pagrus auratus ), using social and historical research methods. Social research consisted of interviews with recreational fishers, focusing on the most and largest snapper they had caught. In addition, the diary‐logs of two recreational fishers were analysed. Historical research consisted of investigation of old books, photos, archives and unpublished sources unconventional to fishery science. Interviews with fishers demonstrated no or weak trends in snapper abundance or size, and were likely impeded by a lack of ability to detect change in a fish stock that may still be considered abundant. The fishers’ perception of change, however, largely reflected recent experiences (last c. 10 years), when biomass is understood to have increased, and mostly did not consider experiences before the 1980s. Alternatively, diary‐logs of fisher catch rates produced a pattern that matched formal stock assessments of snapper biomass, suggesting declines in abundance up until the 1990s and an increase in biomass after that time. Historical research, although more qualitative, had the ability to investigate periods where formal records were not kept and described a fishery vastly different from the current one. Snapper were easily caught, in great abundance and in unusual locations. Localised depletion of snapper was first noticed in the early 20th century, despite spectacular catches of snapper occurring after that time. Snapper behaviour was also likely different, with visual sightings of snapper by onlookers a common occurrence. Although predictions from stock assessment models are consistent with that of the anecdotes listed here (i.e., high biomass in the past), these anecdotes are valuable as they explain lost biomass in a perspective meaningful to all. This perspective may be valuable for managers trying to consider the non‐financial value of a shared fishery but, if unrecognised, represents a shifting baseline.

Nitrogen yields from New Zealand coastal catchments to receiving estuaries - Keira Heggie; Candida Savage (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
A model to estimate nitrogen loads from coastal catchments to New Zealand estuaries is presented. The Sub‐Catchment to Estuary Nitrogen Yield (SCENY) model estimates total nitrogen inputs from atmospheric deposition, fertiliser application, and biological nitrogen fixation for catchments with different land use practices. Nitrogen losses in the vadose zone and aquifers were assessed, and the net nitrogen yield that enters estuaries was quantified. The model was applied to 13 sub‐catchments in the South Island, which encompass 0–91% agricultural land use. Nitrogen yields to the study estuaries ranged from 0.6 kg N ha −1 yr −1 to 17.0 kg N ha −1 yr −1 , with nitrogen flux increasing directly with the percentage of agriculture in the catchment. Moreover, fertiliser contribution to nutrient loading increased proportionately with increased nitrogen yields. The model was in close agreement with other New Zealand nitrogen yield models and confirms that management of water quality for estuaries surrounded by agricultural catchments should be targeted at the local level, with improved measures for controlling fertiliser run‐off.

Effect of gonadotropin releasing‐hormone analogue and human chorionic gonadotropin on milt characteristics and gonadal steroids in yellowfin bream, Acanthopagrus australis (Sparidae) - B. J. Black; N. W. Pankhurst (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Adult yellowfin bream ( Acanthopagrus australis ) were captured from the wild and maintained in outdoor tanks until the onset of the natural spawning season (May ‐ June). Three replicate trials were conducted to examine the effects of gonadotropin releasing‐hormone analogue (GnRHa) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) on milt characteristics and gonadal steroid levels. Spermiating males were injected intraperitoneally with either saline solution (control) or a single dose of GnRHa (25, 50, 75, 100 μg kg −1 ) or hCG (250, 500, 750, 1000 IU kg −1 ). Milt and blood samples were collected before hormone administration (0 h) to examine initial reproductive status, and at 6, 24, and 48 h post injection (p.i.) to assess the effects of hormone treatment. There was a progressive increase in the reproductive condition of fish held throughout the experimental period, with increases in milt volume and sperm concentration over time, and a corresponding fall in the duration of sperm activity. Treatment with saline solution or hCG did not significantly alter reproductive parameters. Treatment with GnRHa at a dose of 100 μg kg −1 significantly increased milt volume and reduced sperm concentration at 48 h p.i. The cumulative number of sperm collected over the 48 h sample period was also elevated. The duration of sperm activity was unaffected by hormone dose or type. All GnRHa treatment groups had elevated levels of 11‐ketotestosterone (11‐KT) at 24 and 48 hp.i. Plasma testosterone levels did not change with treatment. The increase in milt volume and cumulative sperm number in the 100 μg kg −1 group coupled with the elevated levels of 11‐KT throughout this period suggest gonadotropin‐dependent production of 11‐KT as a mediator of spermiogenesis, but not spermiation in yellowfin bream. The lack of response to hCG may be explained by low potency of the hormone in yellowfin bream during the early spawning season.

Nitrogen and phosphorus in New Zealand streams and rivers: Control and impact of eutrophication and the influence of land management - R. W. Mcdowell; S. T. Larned; D. J. Houlbrooke (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Given sufficient light and heat, the growth of aquatic macrophytes and algae associated with eutrophication is generally controlled by the concentration, form and ratio between nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Data from 1100 freshwater sites monitored for the last 10 years by New Zealand's regional councils and unitary authorities were assessed for streams and rivers with mean nitrate/ nitrite‐N (NNN), dissolved reactive P (DRP), total N (TN) and total P (TP) concentrations in excess of New Zealand guidelines, and to generate a data set of N:P ratios to predict potential periphyton response according to the concentration of the limiting nutrient. The frequency of sites exceeding the guidelines varied from 0 to 100% depending on the parameter and region, but South Island regions were generally more compliant. The dissolved inorganic N (DIN) to dissolved reactive P (DRP) ratio was used to group data into three nutrient limitation classes: 15:l (P‐limited), by mass. P‐limitation was the most frequent scenario in New Zealand streams (overall, 76% of sites were P‐limited, 12% N‐limited, and 12% co‐limited). The mean concentration of the limiting nutrient for each site was combined with empirical relationships to predict periphyton densities (the average of N‐and P‐limited growth was used for sites with co‐limitation). This assessment predicted that 22 sites were likely to exceed the periphyton guideline for protecting benthic biodiversity (50 mg chlorophyll a m −2 ), but this assessment is likely to be highly changeable in response to climatic conditions and present and future land use. As an example, we modelled N and P losses from an average sheep and a dairy farm in Southland (South Island, New Zealand) in 1958, 1988, 2008 and 2028. We predicted that with time, as farm systems have and continue to intensify, N losses increase at a greater rate than P losses. Since the pathway for N to reach fresh waters may be more tortuous and take longer than P to reach a stream or river, focusing mitigation on P losses may have a quicker effect on potential algal growth. In addition, with time, it is expected that P‐limitation in New Zealand's rivers and streams will be more widespread as N‐losses are unabated. Hence, although strategies to decrease N losses should be practised, mitigating P losses is also central to preventing eutrophication.

Differences in the distributions of freshwater fishes and decapod crustaceans in urban and forested streams in Auckland, New Zealand - Amber J. McEwan; Michael K. Joy (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Using data from existing studies, assemblages of freshwater fishes and decapod crustaceans were examined at 39 sites in urbanised catchments and 57 sites in forested (reference) catchments within the greater Auckland region, New Zealand. Eleven native and 1 exotic fish species and 2 native decapod crustacean species were recorded. Species richness and fish Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI) scores were lower overall in streams in urbanised catchments. Shortfin eel ( Anguilla australis ) and mosquitofish ( Gambusia affinis ) were more dominant in urban streams; all other commonly occurring species were found significantly more often in reference streams. Non‐diadromous native species (Cran's bully ( Gobiomorphus basalts ) and freshwater crayfish ( Paranephrops planifions )) were absent from urban streams, but relatively abundant in reference streams. This absence of non‐diadromous species, together with the urban occurrence of five diadromous species suggests that migratory barriers pose less of a threat to freshwater communities than physico‐chemical disturbance in streams in the Auckland urban region.

Mussel spat ropes provide passage for banded kokopu ( Galaxias fasciatus ) in laboratory trials - Bruno O. David; Mark P. Hamer; Kevin J. Collier (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The use of mussel spat ropes to enable the passage of banded kokopu ( Galaxias fasciatus ) past perched culverts was tested under laboratory conditions. A 0.5 m high simulated perched culvert was fitted with one of two UV stabilised polypropylene rope types: “Russet Loop” and “Super Xmas Tree”. Four randomised replicate trials using each rope type were conducted to test their respective abilities to provide passage for “fresh‐run” banded kokopu whitebait (migrating post‐larval juveniles). There was no statistical difference in performance between the two rope types, with both performing equally well over each 3 h trial. A high proportion of fish used the ropes to successfully negotiate the structure (mean >85% individuals per trial irrespective of rope type). The high rate of successful passage over a short time period suggests that these ropes may be an effective, affordable and potentially easy retrofit to perched culverts, particularly for native species with similar climbing capabilities to banded kokopu.

Lethal concentrations of suspended solids for common native fish species that are rare in New Zealand rivers with high suspended solids loads - David K. Rowe; Murray Hicks; Joshua P. Smith; Erica Williams (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Common native fish species that are rare in New Zealand rivers with high suspended solids (SS) concentrations were identified to determine which species were likely to be most affected by high SS concentrations. Mortality rates for the three most sensitive species (banded kokopu Galaxias fasciatus, redfin bully Gobiomorphus huttoni, common smelt Retropinna retropinnd ) were measured over a range of SS concentrations to identify lethal concentrations. The survival of banded kokopu and redfin bully was not reduced by SS concentrations up to 43 000 g m −3 ; however, the 24‐h survival of common smelt was reduced by SS concentrations over 1000 g m −3 , and its median lethal concentration (LC50) was close to 3000 g m −3 . SS concentrations over 3000 g m −3 for more than 24 h will therefore reduce smelt but not affect the mortality of most other common native fish species. Although mortality from high concentrations of SS can account for the scarcity of smelt in rivers with high SS concentrations, mortality from high SS does not explain the scarcity of banded kokopu or redfin bully in such rivers. High turbidity (>20 nephelometric turbidity units) is known to limit the upstream migration and recruitment of juvenile banded kokopu in rivers with increased SS concentrations. Banded kokopu is therefore affected by increased turbidity from SS rather than lethal SS concentrations. As redfin bully were not affected by either high turbidity levels or high SS concentrations, the low abundance of this species in rivers with high SS concentrations is likely to be related to the siltation of benthic habitats.

Comparison of methods for the analysis of New Zealand sea lion, Phocarctos hookeri , milk - F. G. Riet Saprtza; N. Lopez‐Villalobos; D. D. S. Mackenzie; P. J. Duignan; A. MacGibbon; B. L. Chilvers; I. S. Wilkinson (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The milk composition of New Zealand sea lion, Phocarctos hookeri , was determined using standard analytical methods, a MilkoScan™ FT 120 and an accelerated solvent extractor (ASE) for fat concentration. The results for fat, protein and total solid concentrations between the different analytical methods were assessed using different measures of statistical fitness including coefficient of determination, concordance correlation coefficient, mean prediction error, and intraclass correlation coefficient. The repeatability and reliability of the results obtained with the calibrated MilkoScan™ FT 120 were comparable with those obtained using standard methods, the Roese‐Gottlieb method for fat, Kjeldahl method for protein and gravimetric method for total solids. The MilkoScan™ FT 120s are fast and cost‐effective and are widely used in dairy laboratories around the world, which should make them readily accessible to ecologists/biologists studying the milk composition of non‐domestic animals.

Observations of Hector's dolphins ( Cephalorhynchus hectori ) associating with inshore fishing trawlers at Banks Peninsula, New Zealand - William Rayment; Trudi Webster (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Fishing activities have the potential to alter the behaviour of cetaceans and pose a threat through bycatch. We present observations concerning the influence of inshore trawling on group size and behaviour of Hector's dolphins ( Cephalorhynchus hectori ) at Banks Peninsula, New Zealand, made during photo‐ID surveys from 2003 to 2007. Aggregations of dolphins, typically involved in what we assumed to be foraging behaviour, were observed following small inshore trawlers year‐round. Group size was larger for aggregations of dolphins following trawlers (mean ± SE = 22.9 ± 1.3, n = 83) than for non‐trawler groups (3.7 ± 0.2, n = 439), and dolphins were typically in a more “excited” state, frequently exhibiting aerial and sexual behaviours. We suggest that trawlers increase the availability of prey for Hector's dolphins and hence foraging behind trawlers is an energetically favourable activity. However, following trawlers probably also increases the risk of being caught in trawl nets, compounding the threats faced by this endangered species.

Faecal microbial contamination of watercress ( Nasturtium officinale ) gathered by a Maori protocol in New Zealand streams - A. Donnison; C. Ross; L. Dixon (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
A study was carried out to determine the food safety status of watercress ( Nasturtium officinale ) harvested from rural streams under Maori protocol. Sixty‐five sample bunches (c. 500 g) were collected from four streams in the Waikato region of New Zealand each summer from 2005 to 2007. Two streams, Southern Enclosure and Te Waihou, were within reserves and the other two, Mangapiko and Piopio, flowed through pastoral farms. To assess faecal contamination status, Escherichia coli and thermotolerant Campylobacter were measured on watercress as collected and E. coli counts assessed against the New Zealand guideline for ready‐to‐eat foods (satisfactory: E. coli per g). To determine whether washing would ensure the watercress met food safety standards, an additional 6 bunches were collected and washed in running tap water (household regime). A further 15 bunches were washed by a simulated commercial triple washing regime. At harvest, 16 of 17 watercress samples collected from the Southern Enclosure and 11 of 22 from Te Waihou met the satisfactory criterion for ready‐to‐eat food, but only 1 of 17 from Mangapiko and none of 9 from Piopio were satisfactory. No Campylobacter was recovered from any sample of watercress collected from the four sites. After washing in running tap water, E. coli numbers still exceeded the satisfactory criterion. Commercial triple washing was more effective in ensuring satisfactory watercress, but of the 15 samples subjected to this regime, only 6 met the satisfactory criterion. Escherichia coli remained firmly attached to watercress leaves after both washing regimes (presumably in biofilms). Overall, these findings suggest that it is not advisable to use watercress harvested from rural streams as a raw salad vegetable, particularly from those affected by pastoral farming.

Bathyal polychaete assemblages in the region of the Subtropical Front, Chatham Rise, New Zealand - P. K. Probert; C. J. Glasby; S. L. Grove; B. L. Paavo (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Polychaetes were collected from eight sites across the Chatham Rise (New Zealand) in the region of the Subtropical Front from water depths of c. 2300 m to 350 m. A total of 169 putative species representing 36 families was identified. Spionidae, Paraonidae, Cirratulidae, Syllidae, and Orbiniidae accounted for 50% of all polychaete individuals. Multivariate analysis revealed that three sites at c. 350–453 m water depth on muddy sand (6–7% clay) shared similar faunal and environmental characteristics. Numerical dominants included Lumbrineris sp., P seudeurythoe minuta, Dipolydora cf. socialis, Aglaophamus verrilli, Prionospio lehlersi , Syllinae sp., Monticellina sp., and Cossura sp. Replicates from a single site at c. 750 m depth on the southern flank of the Rise produced a distinct assemblage dominated by Paradoneis, Naineris, Notomastus , Harmothoinae, Prionospio lehlersi, Levinsenia, Aricidea, Kebuita, Paraonella , and ? Leiochrus species. Replicates from greater depths north and south of the Rise presented a greater range of assemblage characteristics and environmental parameters including temperature, dissolved oxygen, median grain size, calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ), and total organic matter content. Twenty‐eight taxa were found exclusively below 750 m depths including species of Ampharetinae, Chloeia, Pseudeurythoe , Capitellidae, and Cirratulidae. There was a significant difference in faunal composition between northern and southern flanks of the Rise within depth classes and also between sites at the same depth classes. Faunal density and species diversity appeared highest from the crest to 750 m depth on the southern side. Low species diversity at the deepest sites may be confounded by reduced density.

Diets of eight fish species from the upper slope off the Wairarapa coast, North Island, New Zealand, with notes on the diets of others - M. R. L. Jones (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The diets of eight demersal fish species from the upper continental slope (c. 24CM‐50 m) were determined from samples taken during late January and early February 2004, off the Wairarapa coast, North Island, New Zealand. Diets were from a combination of benthopelagic and benthic sources, with most species exhibiting ontogenetic shifts in diet, in that larger‐bodied food (fish and/or natant decapod prawns) was more important in the diets of larger fish. Javelinfish ( Lepidorhynchus denticulatus ), silver roughy ( Hoplostethus mediterraneus ), and capro dory ( Capromimus abbreviatus ) had predominantly benthopelagic diets, whereas the diets of sea perch ( Helicolenus percoides ), Bollons’ rattail ( Caelorinchus bollonsi ), two‐banded rattail (C. biclinozonalis ), and silverside ( Argentina elongata ) were predominantly benthic, with the crab Carcinoplax victoriensis an important food item. The diet of Oliver's rattail (C. oliverianus ) was a mix of benthopelagic and benthic organisms. Generally, levels of dietary overlap between the eight species were low. Overall, the diets of these fish probably reflect regional and seasonal levels of food availability. Notes on food observed in the stomachs of a further 18 species, for which there were fewer than 10 stomach samples per species are also provided.

Sequence polymorphism in a marine bivalve ( Perna canaliculus ) orphan G protein‐coupled receptor gene: Preliminary description and possible implications - Andrew E. Fidler; Helgi B. Schiöth; Robert Fredriksson (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
G protein‐coupled receptors (GPCRs) form a protein superfamily whose members mediate the detection of a diverse range of extracellular signals across a wide taxonomic range. With the exception of opsins, data on molluscan GPCRs are still sparse. Here, we report a preliminary characterisation of a novel GPCR gene, denoted dq646643 , from a commercially significant marine bivalve, the green‐lipped mussel ( Perna canaliculus ). Levels of dq646643 transcripts varied widely between different tissues and were detected at their highest levels in the posterior adductor mussel and mantle edge. Phylogenetic analyses were unable to identify any clear dq646643 orthologues, although it was apparent that the dq646643 lineage arose from an early divergence within the metazoan GPCR rhodopsin superfamily. Despite having an ancient lineage, dq646643 displays high levels of translated sequence polymorphism. Although we have no definitive explanation for these high levels of polymorphism, this finding is consistent with reports from other marine invertebrates. These results suggest that, as apparently for oysters, P. canaliculus may carry a significant “genetic load” which needs to be considered during any selective breeding of this species.

How much runoff do riparian wetlands affect? - J. C. Rutherford; D. Schroer; G. Timpany (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Nitrate runoff from pastoral fanning is of concern because it contributes to lake eutrophication. Surface flow in wetlands is a measure of the runoff likely to experience nitrate attenuation. This study assessed the potential of small headwater wetlands to reduce catchment nitrate loads by quantifying the proportion of total runoff that occurred as surface flow at the outlet of wetlands. Surface flow can be measured from wetlands in side valleys (valley wetlands) with well defined flow channels, but not in those parallel to the stream (riparian wetlands) with distributed flow. This study, from November 2004 to June 2008: (1) measured the mean specific flow yield (mm yr −1 ) at the outlet of 6 wetlands; (2) classified wetlands into 3 types based on hydrology; (3) mapped and classified all wetlands in the catchment; and (4) calculated the area‐weighted mean specific yield of wetlands for the whole catchment. The 6.6 km 2 study catchment at Taupo, North Island, New Zealand, was predominantly pasture on volcanic soils where flows were baseflow dominated. Riparian and valley wetlands occupied 5% of catchment area. Type 1 wetlands flowed continuously, were dominated by baseflow (81–83%), and had a mean annual yield (± SE) of 167 ± 46 mm (34% of stream yield). Type 2 wetlands dried up during droughts and type 3 wetlands dried up each summer. Both latter types had a low baseflow component (20%) and a yield of 66±18 mm (13% of stream yield). In one tributary, gaugings over 4 days in summer during a wet year indicated that 27% of streamflow originated from wetlands. For the catchment as a whole, wetland baseflow accounted for 11± 4% of mean annual streamflow and wetland quickflow another 8 ± 2%, although these percentages are likely underestimates because seepages occurred downslope from measurement points. Although riparian and valley wetlands occupied only 5% of the catchment area, they could potentially have attenuated nitrogen in 11–19% of runoff. Other catchments may have different hydrology and wetland nitrate attenuation, and the methods outlined here could be used to quantify these differences.

A voluntary harvest control rule for a New Zealand rock lobster ( Jasus edwardsii ) stock - Paul A. Breen (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
This paper describes a study to develop and test a simple harvest control (decision) rule that could be used by the commercial rock lobster industry in the CRA 5 quota management area in New Zealand. Time contraints prevented a full stock assessment, so alternatively the history of annual production was estimated from catch and catch‐per‐unit‐of‐effort (CPUE) data, and two versions of an operating model were based on the results: one used a fitted relation between biomass and production, and the other used constant production. Production was simulated with autocorrelated stochastic variation, and CPUE was simulated with observation error. Using a base case and two sensitivity trials for each model gave six operating models. Six candidate harvest control rules were developed, and sets of 1000 simulations were made for each combination of rule and model. The rules were then compared on the basis of fishery and stock indicators. Although choosing a specific rule is difficult, having a voluntary harvest control rule that reduces catches when CPUE is low maintains a higher mean biomass and prevents low biomass episodes.

Movement patterns of individual migrating western rock lobster, Panulirus cygnus, in Western Australia - R. Melville‐Smith; N. E. Beale (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Migrating and pre‐migrating western rock lobster Panulirus cygnus were tagged with datastorage tags that recorded temperature and pressure, which was converted to depth (Pressure (kPa) — surface pressure (kPa)/10)) at Dongara and Jurien Bay in Western Australia between December 2005 and December 2007. All lobsters were fitted with tag flotation devices, and returns were made by either commercial fishers or beachcombers who located detached tags. A total of 135 lobsters were released with “backpack” flotation tags, but only 84 (62.2%) of the backpacks carried data‐storage tags. Depths of release ranged from 5 to 113 m. Of the tagged lobsters released, commercial fishers recaptured 52 (38.5%), whereas 11 tags (8.1%) were found by beachcombers. At least 33%, and possibly up to 63%, of animals identified by their pale coloration as pre‐migrating individuals, failed to migrate. Those that did migrate ( n = 11) were at liberty from 1 to 94 days and showed generally similar movement patterns in that they migrated only at night from darkness (after 2000 h) until after moonrise. However, their movement patterns were less constrained by the rising of the moon in deep water. Only 27% migrated nightly, compared with 73% that skipped migrating on one or more nights, to restart some days later. This latter proportion would likely have been considerably greater, but some migrating animals were only at large for short periods before recapture, and therefore had little time to show any variation to the nocturnal migration pattern. Individual speeds of migration during periods of activity were estimated for nine lobsters as 0.20 to 0.68 km h −1 , with a mean speed of 0.44 km h −1 , or 7.4 m min −1 . Improved knowledge of daily movement patterns resulting from this study provides a potentially important input into technological improvements in bait and pot design.

Sharks and rays of Australia. 2nd ed. By Peter R.Last and John D.Stevens. Published in Australia and New Zealand in 2009 by CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria, Australia (www.publish.csiro.au). Published elsewhere by Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States (www.hup.harvard.edu). 644 p., including 91 colour plates, hardcover. ISBN 978–0‐674–034111–2. Price au$120.00. - Malcolm Francis (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)

Seasonal variability in the Macroinvertebrate Community Index: Are seasonal correction factors required? - John D. Stark; Ngaire Phillips (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Freshwater macroinvertebrate data collected from streams in Taranaki, New Zealand (1981–2006) were used to examine seasonality of biological indices including taxon richness, %EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera) richness, and the hard‐ and soft‐bottomed (‐sb) stream versions of the Macroinvertebrate Community Index (MCI). All indices tested showed modest but statistically significant seasonal variation in hard‐bottomed streams. Seasonal means for the MCI were within ±3.0% of the annual mean. The Semi‐Quantitative MCI (SQMCI) (±4.3%), %EPT richness (±7.4%) and taxon richness (±7.7%) showed greater seasonal variability than the MCI. MCI, SQMCI, and %EPT richness were significantly higher in spring and winter compared with autumn and summer. Taxon richness was lower in winter than in other seasons. In soft‐bottomed streams, SQMCI‐sb showed least seasonality (within ±3.6% of the annual mean, nonsignificant), followed by MCI‐sb and taxon richness (±4.7%), and %EPT richness (±11.2%). Spring and winter MCI‐sb and SQMCI‐sb values tended to be significantly higher than those calculated from summer or autumn samples, although most values were within 5% of the annual site means. Examination of seasonal variation in species traits and their relationships to observed seasonal patterns of biotic indices did not support the suggestion that seasonal variations in life histories of aquatic macroinvertebrates affect index values. Rather, seasons with higher biotic index values were associated with a greater frequency of flow disturbance, which is consistent with the view that the character of New Zealand's stream macroinvertebrate communities with their poorly‐synchronised life histories, has been shaped by the unpredictable physical environment. We recommend the MCI and MCI‐sb for State of Environment reporting in New Zealand for cost‐effectiveness and because data requirements and seasonal variation were less than for quantitative alternative indices. We suggest that seasonal variability is unlikely to confound interpretation, and does not need to be considered.

Use and exchange of genetic resources in molluscan aquaculture - Ximing Guo (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
Molluscs are major aquaculture species worldwide. Molluscan aquaculture accounts for approximately 27% of the total world aquaculture production. The use and exchange of genetic resources have played an important role in the development of molluscan aquaculture. The introduction and use of non‐native species have been instrumental in oyster and scallop aquaculture; for example, the Pacific oyster, translocated from Japan, supports major aquaculture industries in many countries of North and South America, Europe, Asia and Africa. Bay scallops introduced from the USA account for an annual production of over 600 000 t in China. Non‐native genetic materials have also been used for the genetic improvement of native species through interspecific and intraspecific hybridization. Unique genetic lines, such as disease‐resistant strains, have been developed through selective breeding in some molluscs, although significantly more efforts are needed. Although the importance of genetic resources is apparent, the identification, protection and utilization of molluscan genetic resources remain a challenge.

Use and exchange of genetic resources of penaeid shrimps for food and aquaculture - John A. H. Benzie (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei Boone, 1931 and Penaeus monodon Fabricius, 1798 provide 87% of the world’s farmed marine shrimp, and 99% with another five species, Penaeus (Fenneropenaeus) chinensis (Osbeck, 1765), Penaeus (Fenneropenaeus) indicus Milne‐Edwards, 1837, Penaeus (Fenneropenaeus) merguiensis de Man, 1888, Penaeus (Litopenaeus) stylirostris Stimpson, 1874 and Penaeus (Marsupenaeus) japonicus Bate, 1888. Genetically improved strains have been traded for P. chinensis , P. stylirostris , P. vannamei and P. monodon , although closed populations have been developed for all seven species. To date, domesticated strains have played a dominant role in seed production for only P. vannamei and P. stylirostris . Extensive worldwide transfer of wild and/or domesticated stocks has occurred for these two species and for P. monodon , but the volume and extent of transfer of the other species is less. Genetic variation documented in wild stocks does not appear to be threatened, but variation within cultured stocks is often reduced relative to the wild and has affected performance in some (now mostly defunct) cultured populations. Hybridization is not effective in producing useful shrimp strains. There is no organized banking of penaeid shrimp genetic resources, either as live shrimp, frozen tissue, tissue or cell culture or DNA. Open access DNA sequences are available, although limited for most species. Significant expressed sequence tags and large insert libraries are available only for P. vannamei and P. monodon .

Use and exchange of aquatic resources relevant for food and aquaculture: common carp ( Cyprinus carpio L.) - Zsigmond Jeney; Zhu Jian (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
This review describes the genetic resources of common carp relevant for food through fisheries and aquaculture. Common carp is naturally distributed in a large part of Asia and Europe and has been introduced worldwide and is reputed to have been cultured for centuries. Its status in Asia and Europe is discussed in detail. The rich diversity of carp in Asian aquaculture is described, with an emphasis on China, the largest producer in the world. In Central and Eastern Europe common carp is the most important ‘freshwater species’, and 60 ‘national’ and 25 ‘foreign’ strains are described in the most recent Catalogue of Carp Breeds ( Bogeruk 2008 ). There are different systems for the management and conservation of carp genetic diversity depending on the level of state involvement, and these systems are described for selected countries/regions, such as China and central and eastern European countries. The latter countries are in a current ‘transition period’ and a tendency of ‘state‐withdrawal’ is evident. However, it is not yet clear whether the market alone is able/ready to take over the responsibility and cost of the management and conservation of carp genetic diversity.

Use and exchange of genetic resources of emerging species for aquaculture and other purposes - Thuy T. T. Nguyen; F. Brian Davy; Michael A. Rimmer; Sena S. De Silva (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
From a genetic resources viewpoint, emerging aquaculture species and species groups are examined mainly in terms of food use. In addition, we include species that are becoming increasingly important for biodiversity conservation and related ecotourism aspects. Together with ornamental fish species, we argue that these species are facing increasing vulnerability and warrant attention. Our intention is to raise awareness of the potential for increasing production and revenues from emerging species/species groups with an emphasis on an underlying link to biodiversity conservation and ecosystem preservation, and how this information will inform policy on access to the genetic resources and the sharing of benefits derived from their use. For food purposes, the fastest growing aquaculture sector is mariculture, and within this sector groupers and wrasses are considered to be the most important because they cater to the relatively lucrative live food fish restaurant trade (LFFRT), which is rapidly expanding in selected South‐East Asian countries. In the Asian region, ecotourism is an emerging sector and a prominent fish group for this purpose is considered to be mahseer. A number of mahseer species are culturally and commercially important and are often seen as a group of indigenous species that are suitable for aquaculture. This review summarizes much of the limited information related to the patterns of use and exchange of genetic resources on emerging aquatic species/species groups, with particular reference to Asia.

Use and exchange of genetic resources of Nile tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus ) - Ambekar E. Eknath; Gideon Hulata (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
The worldwide use of Nile tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758) in aquaculture represents a somewhat unique scenario. The natural distributions and global genetic resources of tilapias are in Africa, yet the main centers of utilization for aquaculture are primarily in Asia. Within a few decades, Nile tilapia graduated from being an ‘orphan commodity’ (i.e. of interest to only resource‐poor fish farmers) to a globally traded commodity. Most aquaculture production of Nile tilapia in Asia and elsewhere has relied on a narrow genetic base. The natural genetic resources have not yet been fully documented and tapped for use in aquaculture, and many natural populations are under severe threat of irreversible change or loss. Although genetic improvement is now well underway, an important question is how the wealth of Nile tilapia wild genetic resources shall be used for the benefit of a wide range of users, at present outside Africa. This review focuses on documenting the status of Nile tilapia genetic resources (including the potential threats), providing a case for their conservation and for the judicious utilization of genetic diversity for the benefit of all stakeholders; and on analysis of the lessons learnt from a major Nile tilapia genetic improvement initiative, the genetic improvement of farmed tilapia (GIFT) project. Information about other genetic improvement efforts by means of hybridization, sex reversal and YY male technology is also presented.

Use and exchange of aquatic genetic resources for food and aquaculture: Clarias catfish - Uthairat Na‐Nakorn; Randall E. Brummett (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
There are 58 species of Clarias recognized in FishBase (as of January 2009), 33 in Africa and 25 in Asia. Aquaculture of clariids is important with 30 countries reporting a total production of over 300 000 t worth nearly US$400 million in 2006. Most production involves the African Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and three Asian species, Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus, 1758), Clarias macrocephalus (Günther, 1864) and Clarias fuscus (Lacep'de, 1803). In much of Asia, hybrids of introduced C. gariepinus with native species dominate aquaculture and may pose threats to the purity and viability of wild populations. Many local strains have evolved within farms, some of which have been described and included in genetic management programs. Genetic variation among species and populations is significant, but to date little work on selective breeding of the group has been reported. Conservation efforts have so far focused on ex situ methods, primarily for farmed stocks, but these are few and expensive and farmed stocks are often of lower genetic diversity than wild stocks. In situ conservation of genetic material, both for aquaculture and for the maintenance of fitness in wild populations in light of changes occurring in the watershed, needs to be considered as a more viable long‐term strategy. The preservation of ecosystem functional integrity is thus a prerequisite for the long‐term conservation of Clarias genetic resources for food and aquaculture.

Use and exchange of salmonid genetic resources relevant for food and aquaculture - Igor I. Solar (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
This review describes the global use and exchange of salmonid genetic resources for human food from fisheries and aquaculture. Trends in population abundance, variations in the harvest of wild stocks, historic transfers and worldwide translocations of stocks for fisheries and aquaculture are briefly described for seven species of Pacific salmon ( Oncorhynchus ), for Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ) and for Arctic charr ( Salvelinus alpinus ). Also considered are the tools currently used to assist in the conservation of endangered wild populations (e.g. captive breeding programmes and gene banks) and the major techniques developed to enhance the production of cultured stocks (selective breeding, hybridization, sex control, chromosome set manipulation and gene transfer). The review briefly discusses the significance of salmon production to the economy of selected countries and the complexity of allocating economic value to long‐range migratory fisheries resources that also hold direct and indirect value for aboriginal/native communities and recreational users.

Use and exchange of aquatic genetic resources in aquaculture: information relevant to access and benefit sharing - Devin M. Bartley; Thuy T. T. Nguyen; Matthias Halwart; Sena S. De Silva (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)

Patterns of use and exchange of genetic resources of the striped catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage 1878) - Thuy T. T. Nguyen (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
The present paper reviews the use and exchange of genetic resources of the migratory freshwater fish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage 1878) (the striped or sutchi catfish). This species is naturally distributed in the Mekong River and Chao Phraya River basins, and is cultured in several countries, but current production occurs predominantly in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Catfish aquaculture in Vietnam has evolved from extensive systems using wild‐caught seed to an intensified farming system that is entirely dependent on hatchery‐produced seed. Genetic improvement programmes on catfish have started in Vietnam, but are still in their infancy. Genetic studies have revealed several subpopulations of the species. Apart from selective breeding and the production of hybrids with closely related species, no other technologies have been applied to improve the performance of catfish. The use and exchange of P. hypophthalmus genetic resources have brought benefits to rural communities. Aquaculture development of catfish has evolved from being seen as an exploitation of natural resources to an activity that can reduce pressure on wild fish populations. Management of aquaculture stocks need to be rationalised to minimise the potential impacts it might cause to wild populations.

Chinese Abstracts (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)

Golden perch Macquaria ambigua are flexible spawners in the Darling River, Australia - B.C. Ebner; O. Scholz; B. Gawne (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The role of flow and floodplains for the recruitment of fishes in the Murray‐Darling Basin, Australia, remains a contentious issue. In this context, the reproductive ecology of golden perch Macquaria ambigua , a widespread, high‐profile angling species with a propensity to produce large numbers of semi‐pelagic eggs remains to be resolved. Back‐calculation of spawning dates from otoliths of juvenile golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) collected in August and November 1997 from the Menindee Lakes on the floodplain of the Darling River, in western New South Wales, Australia, advances understanding of spawning of this species in three ways: (1) golden perch spawned at lower temperatures (≤18.8°C) than has previously been reported from the Murray‐Darling Basin; (2) golden perch in the Menindee Lakes can be derived from spawning in all seasons of the year in contrast to what is apparent in more southerly locations of the Murray‐Darling Basin; and (3) spawning can occur in the absence of floods.

A new species of Zelandobius (Plecoptera: Gripopterygidae: Antarctoperlinae) from the upper Rangitata River, Canterbury, New Zealand - D.P. Gray (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Zelandobius edensis n. sp. is described from a spring‐fed creek in the headwaters of the Rangitata River catchment, South Canterbury, New Zealand. Adult males exhibit varying degrees of brachyptery and the only female collected also had short wings. Larvae are easily identified by their covering of long translucent hairs not found in other members of the Zelandobius confusus‐ group. The link between adult and nymph was confirmed by comparing 600‐base‐pair sequences of the mitochondrial gene, cytochrome c oxidase 1. Observations suggest the life cycle may be strongly synchronised by temperature constraints on nymphal growth and development, and/or a short season suitable for feeding and reproduction by the terrestrial adults.

Estimates of size for the large octopus Macroctopus maorum from measures of beaks in prey remains - Chris Lalas (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Macroctopus maorum , also known as Octopus maorum and Pinnoctopus cordiformis , grows to 12 kg and is the largest octopod in Australasia. In New Zealand, this species features in the diets of seals and albatrosses. Beaks of depredated octopus resist digestion and accumulate in the stomach until regurgitated or defecated. Beaks of M. maorum were differentiated reliably from those of other octopods in prey remains for octopus > c.100 g. Previous studies estimated the size of depredated M. maorum from measures of lower beaks using equations derived either from a small sample of M. maorum or from related species. Here, allometric equations to estimate ventral mantle length (4.6–27.5 cm), dorsal mantle length (5.1–29.0 cm), total length (20–198 cm), and body mass (36–12 000 g) were derived from measures of both upper and lower beaks of 90 specimens of M. maorum . These regressions were imprecise and reflected innate variability in octopus morphometrics, a characteristic reflected in the results of analyses of published data for M. maorum from northern New Zealand and for two other large octopods, Octopus vulgaris and Enteroctopus magnificus .

Longitudinal size distributions of bluegill bullies (Gobiomorphus hubbsi) and torrentfish (Cheimarrichthys fosteri) in two large New Zealand rivers - Nicola K. Atkinson; Michael K. Joy (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
This study compared the longitudinal size distribution of bluegill bullies ( Gobiomorphus hubbsi ) from Hutt River with existing data on the size distributions of bluegill bullies and torrentfish ( Cheimarrichthys fosteri) from Rakaia River, New Zealand. All populations had longitudinal trajectories that showed some increase in size with distance upstream. This increase in size appeared to primarily reflect the influence of amphidromous life styles, where juveniles diffuse upstream from the sea. However, a quantile regression analysis revealed differences in growth and migration rate between the two bluegill bully populations; bluegill bullies from Rakaia River grew at a slower rate and showed variation in migration rate within their population that was not evident in the Hutt River population. Null models were also generated for each population to test for the presence of all size classes of fish in the lower reaches of each river. Both bluegill bully populations showed a significant absence of the largest size classes in the lower reaches and the size trajectories differed significantly from the null models. This difference suggests that all individual bluegill bullies continuously move upstream throughout their lives. In comparison, the size distribution of torrentfish closely resembled the null model, indicating that some individuals did not migrate upstream to the same extent as others.

Effects of sample size on numerical estimates of diel prey consumption in a fish population - Brendan C. Ebner; Ryan R.J. McAllister; Phil Suter (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Numerical data based on stomach content analysis of the zooplanktivorous freshwater fish, Retropinna semoni , were used to examine the effect of fish sample size on mean counts of dominant prey items. Fifty adult R. semoni were collected from throughout the open‐water of Lake Benanee, Australia at each of five times over a diel period. Bootstrapping was used to generate confidence intervals around sample means, and markedly more accurate means were obtained from samples collected in the day than the night. High variation in night samples was the by‐product of a diurnal feeding regime. Traditional sample sizes of 10 to 15 stomachs resulted in reasonable confidence intervals of sample means derived from collections on the first day, corresponding to uniform feeding patterns in the population. However, increased sample sizes were required to describe more complex feeding behaviour on the second day, when a proportion of the population switched to an alternative prey source.

Distribution and dispersal of the early larval stages of the Japanese spiny lobster Panulirus japonicus in the East China Sea - Taku Yoshimura; Kenji Morinaga; Seiji Oshimo; Yoshinobu Konishi; Tsuneo Goto (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The annual distribution and dispersal of early‐stage phyllosoma of the Japanese spiny lobster Panulirus japonicus were examined in the East China Sea and the Sea of Japan off western Japan. Early‐stage larvae were sampled mainly in summer and relatively near the coast off western Kyusyu Island. Few larvae were found in the other three seasons in the East China Sea and the Sea of Japan. This finding suggests that P. japonicus larvae are retained in coastal areas for a few months after hatching until stage V and are transported offshore until autumn, before they grow to stage VI. Examination of archival drifter data off western Kyusyu Island during the spawning season of P. japonicus supported the relatively rapid dispersal of the larvae from the East China Sea near Japan to the Pacific Ocean or the Sea of Japan. Larval transport from the East China Sea to the Pacific Ocean, which is considered to be a main distribution area of middle‐ and late‐stage larvae, would occur in the south at approximately 32–33°N in the East China Sea near western Kyusyu Island.

Parasitic barnacles (Cirripedia: Rhizocephala) from New Zealand off‐shore waters - Jørgen Lützen; Henrik Glenner; Anne‐Nina Lörz (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Nine genera and species of rhizocephalans were recorded from the off‐shore waters around New Zealand. Mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences were used to examine base differences between the European and New Zealand species of Parthenopea . Serial sections to study the internal structures of the reproductive organs were made for the genera Thylacoplethus and Thompsonia . Two species, Parthenopea australis n. sp. and Thylacoplethus novaezealandiae n. sp. are new to science and described in detail. Parthenopea australis n. sp. is the first rhizocephalan species recorded from the vicinity of active cold seeps. Three rhizocephalans could not be identified as they were parasitised by hyperparasitic cryptoniscine isopods. The decapodhost species comprised the taxa Paguridae, Lithodidae, Galatheidae, Chirostylidae, and Callianassidae.

Farming of spiny lobsters in sea cages in India - M. Vijayakumaran; R. Venkatesan; T. Senthil Murugan; T.S. Kumar; Dilip Kumar Jha; M.C. Remany; J. Mary Leema Thilakam; S. Syed Jahan; G. Dharani; S. Kathiroli; K. Selvan (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Pueruli and post‐pueruli, early juveniles and sub‐adults of the spiny lobster, Panulirus homarus and juveniles of P. ornatus were grown in different floating sea cages along the southeast coast of India from May 2003 to May 2007. The first type of cage had a galvanised iron pipe frame (2.0 m × 2.0 m × 1.2 m) with steel woven mesh and four inner detachable compartments (0.75 m × 0.75 m × 1.10 m). Fibre‐reinforced plastic was used subsequently to fabricate cages (1 m × 1 m × 1 m). Pueruli and post‐pueruli of P. homarus (1.58 ± 0.62 g SD), stocked at 60 individuals/m 2 , grew to an average weight of 123.10 ± 26.22 g in 266 days with a survival rate of 70%. Sub‐adults of P. homarus with an average weight (± SD) of 123.61 ± 29.26 g reached 341.25 ± 46.22 g in 225 days at a stocking density of 21 individuals/m 2 with a survival of 73 ± 6%. The post‐pueruli grew by 0.46 ± 0.10 g per day with a specific growth rate (SGR) of 1.64, whereas sub‐adults had a growth rate of 0.97 ± 0.20 g per day with a SGR of 0.43. At a higher stocking density of 80 individuals/m 2 , juveniles (51.83 ± 10.32 g and 58.20 ± 28.22 g) of P. homarus recorded growth rates of 0.86 ± 0.25 (SGR 0.82) and 0.97 ± 0.34 g (SGR 0.96) per day. This study indicates that post‐pueruli of P. homarus can be grown to over 200 g in 12 months and up to 350 g in 16 to 17 months in sea cages. Juveniles (average weight 76.35 ± 34.50 g) of P. ornatus , reared with P. homarus at a stocking density of 80 individuals/m 2 , recorded a weight gain of 139 g in 155 days at arate of 0.89 ± 0.32 g per day with an SGR of 0.67. Marine live clam, Donax spp., was the main feed supplemented with the gastropod, Xancus pyrum , the green mussel, Perna viridis , marine crab (Charibdis sp.), squid (Loligo sp.), and fish such as clupeids and Leognathus sp. Pueruli and post‐pueruli settled in large numbers (up to 35 individuals/month in one cage) both inside and outside the cages.

Description of the larval development of Galaxies maculatus in landlocked lentic and lotic systems in Western Australia - Andrew Chapman; David L. Morgan; Howard S. Gill (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The larvae and larval development of Galaxias maculatus are described from a freshwater lake and a saline river in southwestern Western Australia. The size at hatching (7.0 mm total length) was similar to that recorded elsewhere for G. maculatus and the sequence of fin development (i.e., caudal, dorsal, anal, pectoral, and pelvic fins) was identical to that recorded for galaxiids generally. There were relative increases in the proportions of head length and body depth with larval growth and a decrease in proportion of pre‐anal length. Larvae from river habitats were smaller throughout larval stages of development than those from the lake. Fins of riverine fish began and completed development at a smaller size of fish than the lacustrine population, presumably as a response to the need for great motility at a smaller fish size in lotic environments.

Spread and status of seven submerged pest plants in New Zealand lakes - Mary D. deWinton; Paul D. Champion; John S. Clayton; Rohan D.S. Wells (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The distribution of seven submerged aquatic pest plants is reported. Lake vegetation surveys recorded pest plants in 27.9% of 344 lakes, with two species co‐occurring in 5.8%, and three species in 2.6% of lakes. Egeria densa was most frequent (15.4% of lakes), followed by Ceratophyllum demersum (9.0%), Lagarosiphon major (7.3%), and Utricularia gibba (5.5%). Spread since 2000 has continued for five pest plants, with 34 lakes invaded by U. gibba over 2004–08 alone. Early regional sites in proximity to human population centres were likely plant liberations and numerous potential founder colonies remain in garden ponds. Human activities were important for inter‐lake dispersal, with the exception of bird‐dispersed U. gibba . Significant lake associations between pest plants, and with presence of six exotic fish species, suggest common dispersal pathways and similar introduction risks. Therefore, predictions of future spread should be possible based on sources, dispersal pathways, and identifying key risk factors for lakes.

Viral disease emergence in shrimp aquaculture: origins, impact and the effectiveness of health management strategies - Peter J. Walker; C. V. Mohan (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
Shrimp aquaculture has grown rapidly over several decades to become a major global industry that serves the increasing consumer demand for seafood and has contributed significantly to socio‐economic development in many poor coastal communities. However, the ecological disturbances and changes in patterns of trade associated with the development of shrimp farming have presented many of the pre‐conditions for the emergence and spread of disease. Shrimp are displaced from their natural environments, provided artificial or alternative feeds, stocked in high density, exposed to stress through changes in water quality and are transported nationally and internationally, either live or as frozen product. These practices have provided opportunities for increased pathogenicity of existing infections, exposure to new pathogens, and the rapid transmission and transboundary spread of disease. Not surprisingly, a succession of new viral diseases has devastated the production and livelihoods of farmers and their sustaining communities. This review examines the major viral pathogens of farmed shrimp, the likely reasons for their emergence and spread, and the consequences for the structure and operation of the shrimp farming industry. In addition, this review discusses the health management strategies that have been introduced to combat the major pathogens and the reasons that disease continues to have an impact, particularly on poor, small‐holder farmers in Asia.

Exploring the nutritional demand for essential fatty acids by aquaculture species - Brett D. Glencross (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
Essential fatty acids (EFA) remain one of the least well‐understood and enigmatic nutrients in aquaculture nutrition. Of all dietary nutrients none has a greater direct impact on the composition of its consumer. Their importance stems not only to their impact on animal growth, but also to factors such as reproduction, immunity and product quality. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n‐3) has consistently been shown to provide the greatest EFA value to most species. However, the nutritional value of eicosapentaenoic (EPA; 20:5n‐3) and arachidonic (ARA; 20:4n‐6) acids has also been significantly greater than that exhibited by linolenic (LNA; 18:3n‐3) and linoleic (LOA; 18:2n‐6) acids. All five fatty acids have been shown to provide EFA value to most aquaculture species, although the optimal dietary inclusion levels and balance among the fatty‐acid classes (n‐3 and n‐6) and fatty‐acid chain lengths (18‐C, 20‐C or 22‐C) vary among species. Environmental origin (freshwater, estuarine or marine) appears to be a primary factor influencing the difference in EFA requirements. The role that EFA play in osmoregulation clearly shows how these nutrients affect animals from different aquatic environments. The influence of EFA on growth also appears to be greatest in larval fish and crustaceans, possibly because of their reduced ability to digest and absorb lipids, but also because of a proportionally higher demand for EFA in the development of, in particular, neural tissues. Despite an abundance of research since the 1970s on the EFA requirements of aquaculture species there remains a need to better define the EFA requirements of most aquaculture species. Of all major aquaculture species only the penaeid shrimp has a comprehensively documented assessment of its nutritional requirements for EFA. The nutritional requirements for EFA in most fish species have not been comprehensively studied and those species that were fully examined in the 1970s and 1980s now need to be reassessed in light of recent changes to the use of high‐nutrient‐density diets that were not routinely used in either practice or research during that earlier period. In addition to changes in dietary specification strategies, declining dependence on marine‐origin lipid sources in recent years has placed an increased imperative on understanding the dietary need for long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (lcPUFA). As aquaculture continues to grow there will be an increased use of alternative lipid resources, such as grain, algal and rendered oils, to provide dietary lipids. In addition to dietary dilution of natural EFA sources through the use of these raw materials, they will also bring new challenges, such as increased levels of n‐6 and 18‐C polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Introduction of these n‐6 and PUFA fatty acids to the diet of aquaculture species will not only influence the nutritional demands of these animals, but will also affect their flesh quality characteristics by reducing their level of n‐3 lcPUFA. This dilemma will demand an increased prioritisation on the value of lipid sources rich in n‐3 lcPUFA, but is also likely to stimulate the development of alternative sources of lcPUFA.

Chinese Abstracts (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)

A vessel‐deployed passive postlarval collector to assess settlement of the American lobster Homarus americanus - Richard A. Wahle; Carl Wilson; Matthew Parkhurst; Charlene E. Bergeron (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Passive collectors are used widely in postlarval settlement and recruitment monitoring of spiny lobsters and crabs, but they have only been used in a limited way with clawed lobsters. For nearly two decades, diver‐based suction sampling has served to monitor spatial‐temporal patterns of American lobster (Homarus americanus) postlarval settlement and early juvenile abundance in shallow near‐shore nurseries. Collectors could reveal settlement patterns in zones beyond the practical limits of diving. In 2005, we launched a fisher‐scientist collaboration to evaluate the performance of passive collectors designed to extend the reach of sampling, and to be deployable from a vessel equipped with a standard pot‐hauler. Building on previous designs, our collectors comprised wire mesh trays lined with fine screening on the floor and walls and filled with cobble to simulate natural nursery habitat. Results indicate that no newly settled lobsters were lost during the retrieval process, and densities of young‐of‐year lobsters found in the collectors were similar to those in directly adjacent natural cobble habitat sampled by divers with suction samplers. The collectors also proved to be effective samplers of juvenile fish and crabs, suggesting a possibility for wider application. This success bodes well for expanded deployment of cobble collectors to broaden our understanding of the recruitment processes of lobster and other cobble‐dwelling fauna along the coast of New England, United States and Atlantic Canada.

Management strategy evaluation for rock lobster, Jasus edwardsii , off Victoria, Australia: Accounting for uncertainty in stock structure - André E. Punt; David Hobday (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The management strategy evaluation (MSE) approach was used to evaluate management strategies based on the current method of stock assessment for rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) off Victoria, Australia, and decision rules inferred from the management plan for Victorian rock lobster and past practice when selecting total allowable catches, TACs. The results are expressed in terms of whether it is possible to keep stocks above limit reference points with high probability and recover over‐exploited stocks to the target level. Three categories of management strategy were examined using the MSE, which differed in whether assessments were conducted, and TACs set, by management zone or by region within management zone. A management strategy based on conducting assessments and setting TACs by management zone is most similar to the way assessments are currently conducted and management regulations implemented for rock lobster off Victoria. However, this management strategy performed poorest in recovering stocks to target levels. Alternative management strategies which involved conducting assessments and setting TACs by region performed better, but may have practical limitations. The assessment method was found to be generally relatively accurate and precise, although estimation performance was poor/imprecise on occasion.

Feed intake and its relation to foregut capacity in juvenile spiny lobster, Jasus edwardsii - Cedric J. Simon (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Limited food consumption has been identified as a possible reason for the poor growth in spiny lobsters raised on dry formulated diets. Food intake was determined for different sized juveniles (20–80 g) of the spiny lobster, Jasus edwardsii , fed either fresh mussel flesh or a dry formulated diet for 0.5–5.0 h every 48 h. In addition, the foregut capacities of lobsters of various sizes were measured to relate food intake to foregut fullness. Food intake was relatively rapid on both diets (1 h) and reached mean dry matter threshold values (mean satiation rations) that were related to foregut capacity. Foregut capacity increased linearly with body weight (BW; 10–110 g) and restricted dry matter intake of lobsters to an average of 0.8–1.2% BW regardless of diet. Both wet and dry diets, when fed in equal amount of dry matter, were found to have similar wet weights in the foregut after ingestion. Allowing lobsters more time to feed (2 to 5 h) had no significant effect on mean dry matter intake because the foregut filled to maximum capacity within 1 h. The results suggest that /. edwardsii juveniles have a small foregut capacity (2.5–3% BW) that limits food intake when diets are fed every 48 h. There appears to be no advantage in dry matter intake by providing the nutrient‐dense dry formulated diet of this study compared with mussel flesh. Formulated diets would need to be fed more frequently and be highly digestible if they are to deliver sufficient nutrition to maximise growth for commercial aquaculture.

Assessing the impacts of trawling breeding lobsters (Panulirus ornatus) on the catch of the Torres Strait lobster fishery shared between Australia and Papua New Guinea - Yimin Ye; Darren Dennis (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The shared Torres Strait rock lobster (Panulirus ornatus) fishery provides important income for commercial and traditional fishers in Australia and Papua New Guinea. The lobster stock is first fished in Torres Strait by divers from both countries and then becomes vulnerable to Australian prawn trawlers, followed by Papua New Guinea trawlers during its annual breeding migration. Lobster catch sharing arrangements are governed by the Torres Strait Treaty ratified in 1985, but the sequential trawling of breeding lobsters has been controlled by bilateral agreements. A trawl ban was implemented in 1984 in both countries to conserve the breeding stock, but some trawling has been conducted in the Gulf of Papua since then and there is renewed interest in Papua New Guinea to resume trawling. To evaluate the impact of trawling migratory breeding lobsters on the lobster fishery, a model that combines a cohort depletion model with a stock recruitment relationship was developed in this study. The model showed that when the fishery is fully or over‐exploited by the dive fishery, trawling breeding lobsters would reduce both the spawning stock and the total catch of the fishery. The reduction in catch would increase with increasing fishing mortality. If trawling occurred on the Papua New Guinea side only, a redistribution of catch between Australia and Papua New Guinea would result in a small gain in catch for Papua New Guinea at the expense of the Australian dive fishery. But when fishing mortality reaches a certain level, any trawling in any country will incur catch loss to both countries. For the long‐term sustainability and maximum production of the fishery, regulations should be implemented in both countries under a co‐management scheme of a shared fish stock.

Predator‐prey interactions of American lobster (Homarus americanus) in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada - John Mark Hanson (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Between 1999 and 2006, predator‐prey interactions of American lobster (Homarus americanus) in Northumberland Strait, Canada, and adjacent waters were evaluated from analysis of over 28 000 stomachs from 11 species of demersal fish, 5 species of pelagic fish, and 3 species of large decapod crustaceans. Predation on planktonic stages of lobster was rare and predation upon benthic stages of lobster was uncommon, principally restricted to shorthorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus scorpius) and cannibalism (during the moult). The diet of American lobster ≥40 mm carapace length during July‐August consisted of rock crab (Cancer irroratus , 45–68% of prey biomass, of which c. 30% was moulted carapaces), small sea stars, and lobsters (0.7–12.9% of prey biomass, of which 70% was moulted carapaces). Molluscs, polychaetes, and fish remains (mainly bones and scales) each did not exceed 7.5% of prey biomass. A minimum of 35% of the lobster prey biomass was attributable to scavenging. With an average abundance of 7.6 kg ha‐1, lobsters were the dominant demersal species captured in the study area. Lobsters largely avoided water >30 m deep and

The role of food limitation in lobster population dynamics in coastal Maine, United States, and New Brunswick, Canada - Jonathan H. Grabowski; Julien Gaudette; Erika J. Clesceri; Philip O. Yund (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Lobster ( Homarus americanus ) landings in Maine, United States have increased steadily over the past two decades to levels that are consistently more than triple the 40‐year (1950 to 1990) annual average of c. 9000 MT. Meanwhile, the use of herring ( Clupea harengus ) as bait has increased fourfold since the 1970s, and is currently subsidising lobster productivity in mid‐coast Maine by augmenting the diet and growth of large juvenile and young adult lobsters before they recruit to the fishery. We investigated whether herring bait in the eastern portions of the Gulf of Maine is also subsidising these lobster populations. In 2004, we compared stomach contents, tissue production via stable isotope ratios, and growth rates of lobsters from seasonally open (Cutler, Maine, United States) and closed (Dipper Harbour, New Brunswick, Canada) fishing areas in the spring, summer, and autumn. Contrary to previous results in mid‐coast Maine, lobsters from seasonally closed sites at Dipper Harbour outgrew those from fished sites around Cutler. Yet examination of the diet of lobsters revealed several differences between open and closed sites that did not exist at sites in mid‐coast Maine. For instance, lobsters at Dipper Harbour consumed markedly more bivalves than those at Cutler. Furthermore, quantification of trap densities and the number of licensed fishers in mid‐coast versus eastern Maine determined that fishing effort was greatly reduced in eastern Maine. Thus, our results indicate thatherring bait subsidies are not important in eastern portions of the Gulf of Maine, but the availability of natural prey seemingly limits the growth of lobsters in eastern Maine. Moreover, our study suggests that bottom‐up forcing (i.e., food limitation) can have important consequences for lobster population dynamics and the productivity of lobster fisheries.

Population characteristics of the world's northernmost stocks of European lobster (Homarus gammarus) in Tysfjord and Nordfolda, northern Norway - Ann‐Lisbeth Agnalt; Eva Farestveit; Kaare Gundersen; Knut E. Jørstad; Tore S. Kristiansen (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The northernmost self‐sustaining populations of European lobster (Homarus gammarus) are found north of the Arctic Circle (66°33'N), in Tysfjord and Nordfolda, two large, deep, and relatively warm fjord systems in northern Norway. In contrast to most other Norwegian lobster populations, these genetically distinct populations are still found at relative high densities. This paper presents results from surveys conducted in the fjord systems in 1964–65 and between 1992 to 2005, and compares reproductive characteristics, morphology, growth, and catch‐per‐unit‐effort (CPUE). The lobster population in Stefjord, one of four individual fjords in the Tysfjord fjord system, was characterised by a small mean carapace length (CL, 78±11 mm SD), and less than 18% of the catches were larger than the minimum legal size of 88 mm CL. Growth rates were also low, with an average increment per moult of 4.0 ± 0.9 mm CL for females and 5.6 ± 2.1 mm for males. The crusher claw increased on average 5.5 ± 2.3 mm at each moult in females, and 11.2 ± 7.6 mm in males. The smallest ovigerous female was 62 mm CL, and more than 60% of females above 66 mm CL were berried (egg‐bearing). In contrast, lobster in the Nordfolda fjord system were larger, with more than 75% of the catch larger than minimum legal size, and the smallest ovigerous female was 76 mm CL. Males in Nordfolda increased on average 8.3 ± 2.4 mm in CL at each moult. Lobster populations in the area of the midnight sun (24‐h daylight during summer) were also morphologically different from lobster off southwestern Norway in crusher claw length for males and abdominal width for females. There were no differences in the size distribution or CPUE between the surveys in 1964–65 and between 1992 and 2005, leading to the conclusion that population density seemed to be relatively stable. The average density in the fjord systems of Tysfjord and Nordfolda was 155 ± 76 lobsters and average weight was 71 ± 26 kg per km shoreline in the main survey areas. The adaptation to a sub‐arctic environment has resulted in geneticlly distinct populations as well as slightly altered biology and behaviour. Our assessment suggests that the populations are vulnerable to exploitation, and conservation plans should be elaborated.

Combining passive integrated transponder tags with conventional T‐bar tags to improve tag reporting rates in a rock lobster trap fishery - Stewart D. Frusher; David Hall; Paul Burch; Caleb Gardner (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Tag reporting rate is an important parameter required for estimating fishing and natural mortality in fished populations. It is an extremely difficult parameter to estimate and can vary both during the fishing season and between fishing years. Improving tag reporting rates has been identified as a cost‐effective way of improving precision in fishing and natural mortality estimates derived from tagging data. In this study we evaluated the use of passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags to improve tag reporting rates in a lobster (Jasus edwardsii) trap fishery. To minimise the risk of PIT tag ingestion by consumers, we tested insertion of the PIT tag into the base of the antennae, the base of the walking leg, and the base of the telson. The base of the antennae proved to be the best option for lobster health although impacts were observed at all tag insertion sites. We further developed and tested a hybrid tag that combined a conventional external T‐bar tag with a PIT tag embedded within the shaft. PIT tag scanners were positioned in bottlenecks in the capture process so that all lobsters retained on board the vessel were passed through a scanner. Thus, the tag reporting rate was expected to be 100% for the subsample of the fleet fitted with scanners when scanners were operational. Scanner malfunction was a major issue and further engineering solutions are required to ensure that scanners are reliable when working in harsh marine conditions such as on‐board fishing vessels. Advantages of the hybrid tag are: the ability to be detected by both automatic detectors and fishers; known tag‐induced mortality and tag loss rates from previous research; and PIT tagging without risk of human ingestion.

Regional characterisation of hard‐bottom nursery habitat for juvenile Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) using rapid assessment techniques - Rodney D. Bertelsen; Mark J. Butler; William F. Herrnkind; John H. Hunt (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Shallow, hard‐bottom habitat constitutes approximately 30% of the coastal waters of south Florida, United States, yet it is a chronically understudied feature of the marine seascape in this region. In this study, we characterised the general biogeographic and structural features of shallow benthic hard‐bottom communities in the Florida Keys, and related those to the abundance of juvenile Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) , the target of one of Florida's most economically valuable fisheries. We used rapid assessment techniques to survey more than 100 hard‐bottom sites in the Florida Keys to estimate the percentage bottom coverage of vegetation (seagrass and macroalgae) and the abundance of sponges, octocorals, hard corals, and other crevice‐bearing structures, as well as the abundance of juvenile lobsters. Using a multivariate statistical approach, we evaluated the relationship between habitat and size‐specific juvenile lobster abundance and quantitatively verified the existence of six generally accepted biogeographic subregions. Although the types of hard‐bottom shelters used by juvenile lobsters varied somewhat among these subregions, in all regions, branching‐candle sponges and octocorals were under‐used by lobsters, whereas loggerhead sponges, coral heads, and solution holes were over‐used (i.e., used more frequently than expected based on their availability). There was also an ontogenetic transition in the shelter preference of juvenile lobsters; small juveniles tended to occupy a variety of sponges, whereas large juveniles preferred hard structures such as coral heads and solution holes. This study yields the first quantitative biogeographic description of hard‐bottom communities of the Florida Keys, and confirms the suspected relationship between the structural features of hard‐bottom habitat and the value of these communities as nurseries for juvenile spiny lobster.

Spatial and temporal changes in egg production in the western rock lobster (Panulirus cygnus) fishery - Roy Melville‐Smith; Simon De Lestang; Adrian W. Thomson (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Size at maturity in the western rock lobster (Panulirus cygnus) fishery in Australia increases from north to south and female lobsters carry either one or two batches of eggs per season depending on their carapace length. There has been a steady decrease in the size at first maturity of western rock lobster over the last 30 years, and there are now significantly more small females, many below the legal minimum size, contributing to the brood stock than any time since the fishery has been researched. Biological data were used to show the current contribution to egg production in different management regions of the fishery and historical length‐frequency data were used to show how egg production has changed in those regions overtime. Reasons for the change in size at maturity in this fishery are unclear, but the outcome has been that egg production is now more evenly distributed across management zones. Egg production was high at Abrolhos Islands in the 1990s owing to strong year classes of breeding animals entering the fishery over those years. In the period since 2000, egg production has fallen sharply at the islands, but has increased in the coastal population compared with the 1980s and 1990s.

Can long‐term variation in catch of Japanese spiny lobster Panulirus japonicus be explained by larval supply through the Kuroshio Current? - Nariaki Inoue; Hideo Sekiguchi (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Long‐term annual variation in the catch index (CI) of Japanese spiny lobster Panulirus japonicus was examined in relation to the Kuroshio Current index (KCI). We identified two clusters (A, B) of the regions (prefectures) located east (A) and west (B) of Shionomisaki at the southern tip of Kii Peninsula, Japan. There was a significant positive relationship between the KCI at year t and the CI at year t+2 (2 years later) for cluster A. This relationship suggests annual variation in P. japonicus catch may be determined by the variation in puerulus supply through the Kuroshio Current. Relationships between the CI of these two clusters varied depending on 3 periods, which corresponded to 3 regime shifts: years before 1976, from 1977 to 1988, and after 1989. Significant negative relationships were detected between the CI of clusters A and B from 1975 to 2001, whereas a positive but non‐significant relationship was found from 1965 to 1974. Annual variation in the CI of each cluster did not have a significant relationship with the presence/absence of the large‐meander path of the Kuroshio Current.

Spatial dynamics of the South Australian rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) fishery under a quota‐based system - Adrian Linnane; Kelly Crosthwaite (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The southern rock lobster, Jasus edwardsii , is South Australia's most valuable fisheries resource, with an annual landed value of c. AU$100 million. Approximately 80% of this revenue comes from the southern zone (SZ) rock lobster fishery, which has been managed under an individual transferable quota system since 1993. The total allowable commercial catch is currently set at 1900 tonnes. Long‐term spatial trends in catch and effort were analysed over the period 1970–2005 to investigate possible changes in the spatial dynamics of the fleets as a result of quota introduction. Data indicate that the fishery contracted into three main Marine Fishing Areas (MFAs) after 1993. In particular, the long‐term catch average in MFA 51 decreased from 185.4 tonnes pre‐quota to 59.8 tonnes post quota. This MFA is located in the northern region of the SZ and is one of the furthest MFAs from the main fishing ports in the region. The fishery is also spatially contracted within MFAs. Approximately 80% of the annual catch comes from

Internal organ pathology of wild American lobster ( Homarus americanus ) from eastern Canada affected with shell disease - Michel Comeau; Kadra Benhalima (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
For the first time in decades, multiple lesions on the exoskeleton of wild caught American lobsters ( Homarus americanus ) were observed in eastern Canada in 2005 and 2006. These lesions were similar to those observed since the mid 1990s in the eastern United States. Of the 12 lobsters examined, 8 were males. Scanning electron microscopy showed a dense population of rod‐shaped bacteria associated with the breakdown of the first layer of cuticle. However, the ability of bacteria to fully penetrate the carapace is unknown. The shell disease did not seem to be immediately fatal and was often associated with alterations in the histoarchitecture of several internal organs (i.e., testis, vas deferens, hepatopancreas, and gills). For instance, follicle cells responsible for spermatogenesis were damaged, resulting in deformed and non‐viable spermatozoa in the testis and vas deferens. In contrast, the female reproductive organ did not show any abnormalities. R‐cells responsible for the storage of lipids and glycogen in the hepatopancreas were severely damaged or destroyed, indicating stress and starvation. Beside necrosis and calcification of gill filaments, debris between the gill filaments was also observed that would limit ion exchange and cause metabolic exhaustion. It does not seem that shell disease was the causative agent or a vector for the pathological conditions of internal organs, but one of the symptoms of a common agent affecting the internal organs. Although shell disease was observed in several areas in eastern Canada, its prevalence was low, in contrast to the epizootic shell disease observed in Long Island Sound, Rhode Island and southern Massachusetts, United States.

Lobster trap impact on coral reefs: Effects of wind‐driven trap movement - Cynthia F. Lewis; Stopher L. Slade; Kerry E. Maxwell; Thomas R Matthews (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Commercial fishers report finding their lobster traps often great distances from their original location following major hurricanes. But traps also move during lesser wind events, such as during winter cold fronts. To assess trap impact on coral communities following winter storms, lobster traps were placed in hardbottom and reef habitats commonly used by commercial fishers in the Florida Keys, United States. Trap movement, percentage benthic faunal cover, and benthic faunal damage were assessed after 26 wind events occuring over three winters. Traps moved when storms with sustained winds greater than 15 knots (27.8 km/h) persisted for more than 2 days. Winter storms above this threshold moved buoyed traps a mean (±SE) distance of 3.63 ± 0.62 m, 3.21 ± 0.36 m, and 0.73 ± 0.15 m per trap and affected a mean area of 4.66 ± 0.76 m 2 , 2.88 ± 0.29 m 2 , and 1.06 ± 0.17 m 2 , per trap at 4‐m, 8‐m, and 12‐m depths, respectively. Unbuoyed traps, simulating derelict traps, moved a mean distance of 0.43 ± 0.08 m and 0.44 ± 0.02 m, and affected a mean area of 0.77 ± 0.06 m 2 and 0.90 ± 0.08 m 2 per trap at 4‐m and 8‐m depths, respectively. Injuries caused by trap movement included scraped, fragmented, and dislodged sessile fauna, resulting in significant damage to stony coral, octocoral, and sponges. Overall, sessile fauna cover along the trap movement path was reduced from 45% to 31%, 51% to 41%, and 41% to 35% at the 4‐m, 8‐m, and 12‐m sites, respectively. Because of the large numbers of traps deployed and reported lost each season, damage to sessile fauna and loss of benthic faunal cover caused by traps needs to be considered to effectively protect coral reefs and manage essential fishery habitat in the future.

Growth of the spiny lobster Jasus verreauxi (Decapoda: Palinuridae) off the east coast of Australia - S.S. Montgomery; G.W. Liggins; J.R. Craig; J.R. McLeod (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The eastern rock (spiny) lobster, Jasus verreauxi occurs along the east coast of Australia and North Island of New Zealand. The resource off New South Wales (NSW), Australia, is managed through a suite of input controls and individual catch quotas. The stock assessment process has identified that the length‐based model used in annual stock assessments would be improved with more precise information about the species’ growth patterns. This study provides the first published information on a growth model for this species by describing the results of tagging experiments from 1995 to 2001 (inclusive). Lobsters were tagged with anchor tags across six locations spanning the main distribution of the species off NSW. The maximum time that a tagged lobster was at liberty was 2573 days. Recapture data were fitted to the von Bertalanffy growth function (VBGF) using Fabens method, including parameters for seasonal growth and individual variability in growth, and extraneous information about the average length and age of puerulus larvae so that the parameter t 0 could be calculated. Males had a longer predicted mean growth increment at 98 mm antennal carapace length (CL) and 202 mm (CL) ( g α and g β , the two input sizes used in the model) than females. Transformed values (with CI) for the VBGF parameter K were 0.13 (0.12–0.16) and 0.14 (0.12–0.15) for females and males, respectively. Respective values for the VBGF L 8 were 239.77 (224.37–243.51 mm CL) and 246.10 (244.69–280.70). The eastern rock lobster is amongst the largest of the palinurid family. The species is exploited for approximately 4 years before reaching sexual maturity (approximately 8 years of age) and for approximately 3 years after that time until the legal maximum length is attained. These exploitation circumstances expose this long‐lived species (approximately 30 years) to the risk of recruitment overfishing and consequently this risk is assessed annually through a stock assessment process.

Competition between invasive green crab (Carcinus maenas) and American lobster (Homarus americanus) - P. J. Williams; C. MacSween; M. Rossong (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Green crab (Carcinus maenas) have recently invaded the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. Although these invasive crabs have coexisted without appreciable impact on American lobster (Homarus americanus) populations in northeastern United States, Bay of Fundy, and the southern shore of Nova Scotia, Canada, the green crab in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence likely represents a new introduction of crab from northern Europe. The southern gulf is ideal habitat for green crab, and the crab are commonly captured subtidally, increasing the potential for overlap with juvenile lobsters. To complement previous experiments with green crab versus small (28–57 mm carapace length, CL) and medium (55–70 mm CL) sized lobsters in food competition trials, this paper reports findings from trials with large (72–80 mm CL) lobsters. The lobsters were first to gain possession of the food in an equal number of trials as green crab. The large lobsters fed for 62% of the total feeding time, versus 38% for the green crab, and initiated a significantly greater number of aggressive interactions than green crab. It appears that a reversal of dominance with adult green crab occurs once lobsters exceed 72 mm CL.

Statistical fraud detection in a commercial lobster fishery - Scott D. J. Graham; John Hasseldine; David Paton (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
In this study we introduce the first step towards a statistical model for the reliability of fisheries data. We applied Benford's Law to catch data from the Atlantic Canadian lobster (Homarus americanus) fishery's lobster fishery areas (LFAs) 33 and 34 and compared our results to those using observations from the “grey zone” (a highly regulated lobster fishery shared by Canada and United States) and a fishery with a different regulatory regime (snow crab, Chionoecetes opilio) . Non‐conformity with Benford's Law is often considered as an indicator of human manipulation of accounting data. We found that observations from the grey zone conformed to the distribution predicted by Benford's Law, whereas observations from snow crab and both lobster fishery areas did not conform.

Anatomy and ultrastructural organisation of the eye of the Mediterranean slipper lobster, Scyllarides latus: preliminary results - Stanley T. F. Lau; Ehud Spanier; V. Benno Meyer‐Rochow (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Gross anatomical organisation and ultrastructure of day‐ and nighttime light‐ and dark‐adapted eyes of the Mediterranean slipper lobster, Scyllarides latus , revealed that the retina of this crustacean reacts to different ambient light intensities with photomechanical changes, involving principally screening and reflecting pigments and that a circadian component controls full dark‐adaptation. Although similarities to the earlier investigated eyes of spiny and rock lobsters exist, one significant difference concerns the spindle shape of the adult slipper lobster rhabdom and the banded structure of the latter, caused by orthogonally‐aligned layers of microvilli. The rhabdom structure of adult slipper lobsters thus resembles that of larval rock lobsters and suggests sensitivity to polarised light. The extensive clear‐zone between dioptric and light‐perceiving elements in the eye of the slipper lobster, the relatively large number of ommatidia and facet diameters of 90 μm, moreover, suggest that the slipper lobster eye is particularly suited for vision in a dimly lit environment and operates on the principle of “reflecting superposition optics”. The position of the eyes on the head and the thick cornea are indicative of a need to protect the eyes against physical damage.

Indicators of abundance and spatial distribution of lobsters (Homarus americanus) from standard traps - M. John Tremblay; Carl Macdonald; Ross R. Claytor (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Indicators of abundance for American lobster (Homarus americanus) based on 8 years of trap catch rates (catch‐per‐unit‐effort, CPUE) were evaluated. Volunteer harvesters recorded count, sex and size of lobsters captured in standard traps on a daily basis during the fishing season in coastal Nova Scotia, Canada. We examined the extent to which standardised CPUEs of prerecruits predict the future catches of legal sizes and explored spatial patterns in the abundance of lobsters of different size and reproductive status. The standardised CPUE of prerecruits was correlated with legal size catches in only one of five areas examined. This area had a strong signal of incoming recruitment. Improving the capacity of prerecruit CPUE for predicting legal size catches several years later most likely lies with model incorporation of variables associated with catchability. The spatial distribution of catch rates showed that the area with the highest historical landings per unit area also had the highest relative abundance of prerecruits. The spatial distribution data point to further areas of research related to recruitment processes in lobster in coastal Nova Scotia.

A multi‐stock, length‐based assessment model for New Zealand rock lobster (Jasus Edwardsii) - Vivian Haist; Paul A. Breen; Paul J. Starr (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
We describe a multi‐stock, length‐based Bayesian assessment model for New Zealand spiny lobster (Jasus edwardsii) fisheries. This model allows simultaneous modelling of two or more stocks with a mixture of common and stock‐specific parameters: recruitment is always stock‐specific, but any other parameter can be specified as either common or stock‐specific. Common parameters are estimated from a wider base than they would be in a single‐stock model. The model's time step is flexible and can be changed during the period being modelled to accommodate better data quality in recent data. Other options include the capacity to estimate movements among stocks, allow density‐dependent growth, and choose among likelihood functions for the various data sets, between finite and instantaneous fishing dynamics and between two forms of selectivity curve.

Sound production in Caribbean spiny lobster Panulirus argus and its role in escape during predatory attack by Octopus briareus - Peter E. Bouwma; William F. Herrnkind (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The production of sound (commonly called stridulation) in spiny lobsters when disturbed by humans is well documented but its function during encounters with natural predators remains largely undocumented. Caribbean spiny lobsters Panulirus argus stridulate during tailflip escape attempts in response to grasping of the carapace or antennae by human divers. We hypothesised that stridulating may be effective against predators like octopus which grasp the carapace and antennae during attacks in a way similar to human divers. In this study, we examined defensive sound production during nighttime encounters with Caribbean reef octopus Octopus briareus to determine how P. argus use stridulation and whether it improves survival. In staged nighttime encounters with octopus, lobsters stridulated both during grasping attacks by octopus and after being captured and restrained. Stridulating lobsters escaped from attacking octopuses more frequently and remained uncaptured longer during encounters than experimentally muted individuals. We discuss ecological and evolutionary implications for these data in lobster species that produce sounds when grasped.

Variability in trap catches for an American lobster, Homarus americanus , spring fishery - Michel Comeau; Melissa D. Smith; Manon Mallet (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
At‐sea sampling is a common approach used by fisheries scientists to assess changes in fished populations. Traditional sampling programmes focus on short intensive sampling periods by fisheries personnel, although there has been a move to increase temporal sampling frequency within a fishing season by using harvesters. To determine the suitability of these two options, we compared the precision of estimates obtained for the American lobster (Homarus americanus) fishery in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. The sampling variance estimation for the mean catch‐per‐unit‐effort (CPUE) was based on a three‐stage sampling design with days as the primary unit, and buoy and trap as secondary and third stage units, respectively. Using the estimated variance components to predict and compare the variance of the mean CPUE for different at‐sea sampling designs, we show that it would be more efficient to sample a few traps (at least 3) every day for the entire fishing season than the traditional at‐sea sampling of the entire fishing gear twice or three times in a season by scientific personnel. Designing a harvester‐based at‐sea sampling programme could be an efficient approach for reducing costs while gathering essential fishery data, improving dialogue between the industry and scientists, and increasing harvesters’ participation in managing the resource.

Is seagrass an important nursery habitat for the Caribbean spiny lobster, panulirus argus , in Florida? - Donald C. Behringer; Mark J. Butler; William F. Herrnkind; John H. Hunt; Charles A. Acosta; William C. Sharp (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) settle preferentially in macroalgal‐covered hard‐bottom habitat, but seagrass is more prevalent in Florida (United States) and the Caribbean, so even low settlement of lobsters within seagrass could contribute substantially to recruitment if post‐settlement survival and growth were high. We tested the role of seagrass and hard‐bottom habitats for P. argus recruitment in three ways. We first explored possible density‐dependent regulation of early benthic juvenile lobster survival within cages deployed in seagrass and hard‐bottom habitats. Second, we compared settlement and survival of P. argus in both habitats, by comparing the recovery of microwire‐tagged early benthic juveniles from patches of seagrass and hard‐bottom. Finally, we assessed the relative abundance of juvenile lobsters in each habitat by deploying artificial structures in seagrass sites and compared these data with data from similar deployments of artificial structures in hard‐bottom habitat in other years. More early benthic juvenile lobsters were recovered from cages placed in hard‐bottom than in seagrass, but mortality of the early benthic life stage was high in both habitats. In regional surveys, the mean number of lobsters recovered from artificial shelters deployed within seagrass was lower than in any year that we sampled hard‐bottom, indicating that fewer lobsters reside naturally in seagrass, particularly large juveniles >40 mm carapace length. The greater abundance (and likely survival) of juvenile P. argus that we observed in hard‐bottom habitat as opposed to seagrass, combined with previous studies demonstrating that postlarval P. argus are attracted to, settle in, and metamorphose more quickly in red macroalgae, confirm that macroalgae‐dominated hard‐bottom habitat appears to be the preferred and more optimal nursery for Caribbean spiny lobster.

Use of neurolipofuscin to determine age structure and growth rates of Caribbean spiny lobster Panulirus argus in Florida, United States - Thomas R. Matthews; Kerry E. Maxwell; Rodney D. Bertelsen; Charles D. Derby (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
We histologically determined lipofuscin content in eyestalk neural tissue to estimate the age and growth of Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) in Florida, United States. Neurolipofuscin was measured from size‐stratified samples of 145 lobsters from the Florida Keys and 119 lobsters from the Dry Tortugas, the two main fishing areas in Florida. Modal analysis of the neurolipofuscin concentration frequency histograms suggested a relatively constant neurolipofuscin accumulation rate of 0.27% by volume (%VF) per year, which corresponded with the annual accumulation rate of 0.29%VF previously measured in the laboratory. Verification of the similarity of neurolipofuscin accumulation rates for lobsters in the field with previous laboratory studies indicates that neurolipofuscin concentration is suitable for estimating population parameters for P. argus . Neurolipofuscin‐based age estimates of lobster populations from the Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas, developed from Monte Carlo simulations of size‐frequency distributions, suggested that legal‐sized lobsters (>76.2 mm carapace length) in both areas were predominately 1–2 years old. Lobsters from the Florida Keys were consistently smaller for their age than those from the Dry Tortugas, suggesting that their growth is slower and that there may be little movement of lobsters between the two areas.

How much spatial structure can data for rock lobster off victoria, Australia support? - David Hobday; André E. Punt (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Stock assessments based on fitting sex‐and size‐structured population dynamics models, combined with projections of the future implications for available biomass and egg production, currently form the basis for scientific management advice for rock lobster, Jasus edwardsii , off Victoria, Australia. Traditionally, assessments have been conducted for two “zones” (east and west) off Victoria. However, recent analyses indicate finer‐scale spatial resolution in growth and the probability of being mature as a function of size. Assessments were therefore conducted for six regions, as well as for the two conventional zones, and Bayesian model selection criteria were used to compare alternative model formulations. The results suggest that better fits to the data can be obtained by conducting assessments by region than by zone. The general qualitative conclusion of past stock assessments is that the rock lobster populations off Victoria are depleted to below the target reference point of 40% of the available biomass in 1951 and this conclusion is robust to how the data are treated spatially. However, the time‐trajectories of egg production and available biomass differ among the regions, with the areas in the centre of Victoria being more depleted than those at the extremes.

Ovarian development and size at sexual maturity of the Mexican spiny lobster Panulirus inflatus - Raúl Pérez‐González; Dagoberto Puga‐López; Reina Castro‐Longoria (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The ovarian development and the size at sexual maturity of Panulirus inflatus (Bouvier) of the Mexican Pacific and Gulf of California coastal waters were determined monthly between August 2001 and July 2002, using 191 females with carapace lengths (CLs) ranging from 44.94 to 94.18 mm. The seasonal cycle of ovarian development was divided into seven stages. The diameter of mature oocytes differed depending on ovarianmaturity stage (inactive = 44–115 μm, developing = 115–192 μm, ripe = 285–138 μ m, re‐developing = 85–158 μm, re‐ripe = 133–183 μm, spawned = 29–87 μm, and recovering = 33–58 μm). Size of the smallest mature female was 53.02 mm CL, and the size at which 50% of females reached sexual maturity was estimated as 63.73 mm CL. Mature females were present every month, indicating a continuous reproductive pattern, although gonadosomatic index values were highest between February and July, with the maximum value in June. Results from this study indicate that the present minimum legal size, based on other spiny lobster species, is too large for P. inflatus .

Protecting window‐size female American lobster, Homarus americanus , to increase egg production - Robert MacMillan; Michel Comeau; Manon Mallet (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
A new conservation measure aimed at protecting the larger broodstock (females with a carapace length between 115 and 129 mm, i.e., window‐size females, WSF) to enhance egg production was implemented in 2003 for the American lobster (Homarus americanus) fishery in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. To assess the effectiveness of this new measure, a tagging project was carried out between 2004 and 2007 in the Hillsborough Bay area with the collaboration of local harvesters. Based on a single mark‐recapture Petersen model, the estimated catch rates of WSF not carrying eggs under the abdomen in the study area varied between 40% and 53%. The catch‐per‐unit‐effort (animals per 100 traps) of both berried (egg‐bearing) and non‐berried WSF increased from 0.2 to 0.8 and 1.0 to 1.6, respectively, between 2004 and 2007. Based on the estimated number of non‐berried WSF in the population observed during the spring fishery between 2004 and 2007, the potential total egg production for WSF was estimated at 1.1 billion in the study area. From this total, 515 million eggs would have been produced by WSF directly protected by the conservation measure, i.e., females that would have been harvested if not for the new regulation. Finally, the contribution of berried WSF to the annual egg production in the study area increased from 4% to 23% between 2003 and 2007 based on the at‐sea sampling programme and the fecundity curve. WSF that represented 10% of the total berried female population in 2007 contributed 23% of the annual egg production. Hence, the protection of WSF seems to be an effective conservation measure to increase egg production based on the catch‐per‐unit‐effort and egg production.

Colour variation in the southern rock lobster Jasus edwardsii and its economic impact on the commercial industry - Arani Chandrapavan; Caleb Gardner; Adrian Linnane; David Hobday (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Southern rock lobster Jasus edwardsii varies in shell coloration throughout southern Australia. Predominantly exported as a live product to Asian markets, price is influenced by colour with prices higher for dark red than paler coloured lobsters, which are discounted. This paper explores spatial and depth variation in shell colour for the Tasmanian, South Australian and Victorian fisheries using catch sampling data. The proportion of red lobsters decreased with depth and was prevalent at depths less than 30 m, whereas paler coloured lobsters dominated the deeper depth ranges. The depth of transition where 50% of lobsters were classified as red showed a weak trend of increase with latitude from southern Tasmania to northern South Australia. Under quota management, lobster colour was a significant driver of fleet dynamics as fishers target areas of high price per unit. Consequently, catches of pale lobsters from greater depths remain low despite the high catch rates in these areas. The colour price differential varies seasonally (higher in summer) so fishers increase supply of pale lobsters during winter. Discounting on colour equates to AUS$6.67 million/year for the Tasmanian Fishery alone, which indicates value from management or marketina research to reduce discountina.

Relative contribution of Artemia and mussel as food for cultured middle‐stage Panulirus japonicus phyllosomata as determined by stable nitrogen isotope analysis - Hirokazu Matsuda; Taisuke Takenouchi; Shinji Tanaka; Satoshi Watanabe (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Artemia and mussel gonad represent the main food items in the culture of phyllosomata, including those of the Japanese spiny lobster, Panulirus japonicus . It remains unclear, however, to what extent phyllosomata consume and assimilate these two food items because it is difficult to estimate their food intake by conventional observation methods. In this study, we used stable nitrogen isotope analysis to estimate the relative assimilation of Artemia and mussel ( Mytilus galloprovincialis ) gonad by cultured phyllosomata, based on the assumption that the heavier nitrogen isotope ( 15 N) is enriched in the bodies of phyllosomata during assimilation and metabolic processing of foods, resulting in an increased δ 15 N value. First, subadult and adult Artemia and mussel gonad were sampled monthly to examine the difference in δ 15 N between the two food items. Artemia and mussel gonad had δ 15 N values of ‐0.2‰ ± 0.6‰ and 9.8‰ ± 0.8‰ (mean ± SD), respectively. Using δ 15 N measurements of phyllosomata 29 days after hatching and cultured on a diet of Artemia , the fractionation value of the phyllosomata was calculated as 2.5‰. Middle‐stage phyllosomata (99 days old, body length = 9.3 ± 0.5 mm, n = 4) cultured with mixed diets of Artemia and mussel gonad had δ 15 N values of 5.7‰ ± 0.4‰. Calculations based on these measurements indicated that 66% of all nitrogen in the bodies of the phyllosomata were derived from Artemia and 34% from mussel gonad, suggesting that Artemia is the more important food item for phyllosomata with a body length of c. 10 mm and at least 99 days of age. Our results indicate that the analysis of stable nitrogen isotope ratios is a useful diagnostic tool to estimate the relative assimilation rates of different food items.

A long‐term assessment of the physiological effects of herring ( Clupea harengus ) as a dietary component of the American lobster ( Homarus americanus ) - Anna Myers; Michael F. Tlusty (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Given the economic and ecological importance of American lobster (Homarus americanus) to the western North Atlantic, particular attention has been on factors that may increase susceptibility to disease. However, little focus has been on the possible role of dietary stress. There is strong evidence that wild lobsters feed on bait in traps, typically herring (Clupea harengus) , yet evade capture. If the bait is nutritionally insufficient for lobsters, then the pervasive use of bait (up to 3 kg for each kg of lobster harvested) may compromise the health of lobsters, thus making them more susceptible to diseases. It has been shown previously that lobsters fed a diet solely of herring had higher incidences of shell disease and were less likely to survive than lobsters fed other diets. Here, physiological status including haemolymph protein, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium, hepatopancreas moisture and ash content, and the mineral constituents, thickness and hardness of the cuticle of lobsters fed 100% herring was compared to that of lobsters fed a diet consisting of rock crab (Cancer irroratus) , blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and Spirulina algae. An artificial diet, as well as paired combinations of the three diets were also included for comparison. Juvenile lobsters (approximately 1.25 years of age) were fed one of these six diets for c. 330 days. Diet most affected the cuticle minerals, and lobsters with increased incidence of shell disease had a lower Ca/P ratio. Although few physiological parameters correlated to the previously observed disease and survival results, all physiological parameters tended to change with diet, and those lobsters fed herring overall increased haemolymph and cuticle mineral values and had lower shell physiological values than lobsters fed the other diets. These results suggest that rather than affecting lobsters via a single mechanism, nutritional stress is likely to impact a number of physiological variables, and thus make it difficult to assess health status through a single parameter.

Collective defense by spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) against triggerfish (Balistes capriscus): effects of number of attackers and defenders - Kari L. Lavalli; William F. Herrnkind (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Migrating queues of Caribbean spiny lobsters, Panulirus argus , suffer attacks during daylight by variable numbers of triggerfish they encounter on patch reefs. When threatened, lobsters assemble into outward facing, rosette‐like groups, remain coherent in their spacing, and defend themselves by parrying with their spinous antennae. In 90‐min field tethering trials involving predatory grey triggerfish (Balistes capriscus) , solitary lobsters were subdued 44% of the time whereas grouped lobsters suffered only minor bites; triggerfish present numbered from 1 to 23. Victims of fish attack were significantly smaller than survivors in the field trials. Although attack/defense ratios did not differ between solitary and grouped lobsters, fish behaviours towards such different groups did differ with more bite attempts/bites being directed towards solitary lobsters. In a series of experiments in large seawater enclosures, we pitted 1, 3, 5, 10, or 20 free‐moving lobsters against 2 or 5 grey triggerfish, all of which had previously killed lobsters. We hypothesised that larger fish numbers would be more effective in subduing the prey independent of lobster group size, but that lobsters in larger groups would benefit by a higher per capita survival rate, as compared with smaller groups. We found that per capita mortality declined with lobster group size, but remained the same statistically whether there were two or five triggerfish. Triggerfish interference may have played a role in reducing the effect of greater numbers of attackers.

Using fine‐scale catch predictions to examine spatial variation in growth and catchability of Panulirus cygnus along the west coast of Australia - Simon De Lestang; Nick Caputi; Roy Melville‐Smith (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Puerulus settlement has been monitored throughout the western rock lobster Panulirus cygnus fishery for nearly 40 years. These data, in combination with indices of effort and water temperature, were used to produce recruitment‐catch relationships for each 1° transect of latitude in the coastal part of this fishery from Kalbarri to Cape Leeuwin, as well as at the offshore Abrolhos Islands (total of eight transects). The fine spatial scales of these models provided estimates of certain life history traits that are known to affect lobster catches between adjacent fishing ports. This catch modelling showed that the proportions of 3‐ and 4‐year‐old post‐settlement lobsters contributing to the catches varied markedly from the southern to northern transects, suggesting that juvenile lobsters grow substantially faster in the warmer northern and offshore waters of this fishery. These proportions provide accurate estimates of juvenile growth rates, which are vital in the construction of location‐specific growth algorithms required by the age‐structured models used in the management of this fishery. Model estimates of density‐dependent mortality were greater in the more densely populated centre of the fishery and markedly lower at the northern and southern limits of this species distribution. Annual increases in fishing efficiency were also found to be lowest at the northern and southern extremes of the fishery and greatest in the centre of the fishery, where technology advances and increased fleet mobility have enabled the fleet to increase efficiency by 1–3% each year. Catchability (q) was found to be most influenced by water temperatures in the cooler southern transects, whereas at the Abrolhos Islands, changes in water temperature produced almost no discernable change in q . The catch modelling was also used to quantify the impact of management changes introduced in the 1993/94 fishing season. Increased protection of female lobsters and an 18% pot reduction resulted in a 3–4% permanent reduction in the catch rates of lobsters throughout most of the coastal fishery, whereas at the offshore Abrolhos Islands, catch rates increased by c. 20%, presumably owing to a reduction in the level of pot saturation.

Incorporating uncertainty into the estimation of biological reference points for a spiny lobster (Panulirus penicillatus) fishery - Yi‐Jay Chang; Chi‐Lu Sun; Yong Chen; Su‐Zan Yeh; Wei‐Chuan Chiang (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The status of a fishery is often defined as the probability of fishing mortality rate exceeding a perilous level for long‐term sustainability. Lobster stock assessments are often subject to large uncertainty in input data and high levels of natural variability in lobster life history processes, which calls for incorporating uncertainty associated with both indicator and management reference points in an evaluation of biological risk of overfishing. Using a Monte Carlo simulation approach, we evaluated the impacts of uncertainty in modelling on the determination of the status of the Taitung spiny lobster (Panulirus penicillatus) fishery (Taiwan), which has not been quantitatively determined despite its commercial importance. The commonly used biological reference points derived from the per recruit model (F 0.1 the fishing mortality rate where the slope of the curve of yield‐per‐recruit model is 10% of the maximum slope and F 4Q% , the fishing mortality rate that reduces the expected egg production for a cohort of female lobsters to 40% of that produced in the absence of a fishery of the egg‐per‐recruit model) were influenced by uncertainties associated with lobster life history and fishery parameters. A large uncertainty in the current fishing mortality rate ( F cnr ) and estimates of biological reference points ( F BRPs ) increased the uncertainty in determining the risk of overexploitation throughout the confidence levels of the stochastic decision‐making framework. This simulation study suggests that the target reference point of F 40% is less sensitive to the input parameters’ uncertainty than F 0.1 We suggest a further evaluation of other F ‐based references points and development of biomass‐based reference points before final selection and implementation for the management of the Taitung lobster fishery.

A voluntary reduction in the commercial catch of rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) in a New Zealand fishery - Paul A. Breen; Daryl R. Sykes; Paul J. Starr; Susan Kim; Vivian Haist (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
We describe the development and application of a management procedure (decision rule) that resulted in a voluntary reduction in the commercial catch of spiny rock lobster ( Jasus edwardsii ) in the lower east coast of North Island of New Zealand. The management procedure was developed from an accepted assessment of the CRA 4 (Wellington‐Hawke's Bay) fishery, which used an integrated length‐based assessment model fitted to commercial fishery catch‐per‐unit‐effort (CPUE) biomass indices, commercial length‐frequency data, and tag‐recapture data. The assessment model had been Bayesian, and used the joint posterior distribution of parameters to predict the effect of 384 alternative harvest control rules on the future size of the CRA 4 stock. The harvest control rules all used CPUE as their input, and generated annual changes in catch, which were then simulated by the population dynamics of the operating model. Uncertainty was added to evaluations through observation error, added to the simulated CPUE observations, and stochastic serial auto‐correlation variation in recruitment. We describe how this management procedure was used to effect a voluntary reduction in catch to address the problem of a rapidly declining population.

The 8th international conference and workshop on lobster biology and management: Brief overview - Jean Lavallée; Barry MacPhee (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)

Effects of dietary DHA and EPA on neurogenesis, growth, and survival of juvenile American lobster, Homarus americanus - Gro van der Meeren; Michael F. Tlusty; Anita Metzler; Terje van der Meeren (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
It is crucial to fully understand nutrition in the American lobster, Homarus americanus , given the large interest in hatchery rearing for enhancement. Dietary studies have demonstrated that gross brain development as well as American lobster health and survival is greatly influenced by diet, and in particular the amount and type of omega‐3 fatty acids present in it. We conducted an assessment of how two important fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids, influence alobster's neurogenesis, growth, and survival. To evaluate the specific effects of EPA and DHA, lobsters were fed experimental casein‐based diets that varied in the source of oil. The control diet had flax oil (no EPA or DHA), whereas experimental diets were rich in EPA, DHA, or an even mix of the EPA and DHA oils. Lobsters fed the diets containing DHA oil developed fewer brain cells than those lobsters not fed this oil. Lobsters fed DHA oil also had a slightly, but not statistically significant longer survival time compared with lobsters fed the other diets. The decreased neurogenesis in the DHA‐enriched diets points to the need to understand regulation of nerve cell formation in lobsters, and the functional implications of neurogenesis. Because of the large effects of diet on physiology and health, nutrition will play a critical role in further development of lobster enhancement and aquaculture projects.

Using age to evaluate reproduction in Caribbean spiny lobster, Panulirus argus , in the Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas, United States - Kerry E. Maxwell; Thomas R. Matthews; Rodney D. Bertelsen; Charles D. Derby (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
For many species of lobsters, size at sexual maturity varies across spatially separated populations. This is so for two populations of Caribbean spiny lobster, Panulirus argus , in southern Florida, where females from open‐fishing areas around the Dry Tortugas mature at a larger size than females from open‐fishing areas in the Florida Keys. Variations in onset of maturity between populations of lobsters have been attributed to different environmental conditions, lobster density, and/or fishing pressure. We used age as estimated by histologically expressed neurolipofuscin to examine differences in size at maturity in P. argus . Neurolipofuscin content measured in known‐age, laboratory‐reared animals in a previous study was used to estimate age in wild‐caught P. argus . We show that lobsters from the Florida Keys are significantly smaller than lobsters of the same age from the Dry Tortugas. This difference in growth rates between lobsters from the two locations likely explains the differences in size at onset of maturation. High rates of injury from fishery practices in the Florida Keys and differential predation on slow‐growing lobsters in the Dry Tortugas may account for these differences in growth rates. Additionally, we compared the ages of reproductive females collected from breeding grounds of the Florida Keys to same‐sized non‐reproductive females from an area in the Florida Keys where there was no evidence of breeding. We found that females possessing eggs early in the breeding season were significantly older than females that bore eggs later in the breeding season or that did not produce eggs. Older females also produced more clutches of eggs. Our research indicates that reproduction is related to age in P. argus . The intense fishery and the methods used to fish lobsters are the most likely causes of the reduction in spiny lobster population size structure and size at maturity.

Using acoustic tagging to determine adult spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) movement patterns in the Western Sambo Ecological Reserve (Florida, United States) - Rodney D. Bertelsen; Jessica Hornbeck (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
We used acoustic telemetry to study the movements of spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) during the spring and summer of 2003 and 2004 in Hawk Channel in the Western Sambo Ecological Reserve near Key West, Florida, United States. Overall, lobsters generally showed greatest movement after sunset and before sunrise with relatively less movement between midnight and 0200 h, however, there was great variability in movement patterns between individual lobsters and these variations were related to size or sex. Little or no movement occurred during daytime. Patterns of movement, as revealed by acoustic telemetry revealed that some lobsters repeatedly travelled to the same foraging area at the same time and then returned to the same patch reef (homing ability). Female lobsters that were reproductively active, exhibited movement patterns consistent with reproductive migrations to the forereef. These migrations lasted approximately 1 week and the lobster returned to the same patch reef presumably using the same homing ability used during daily activities. Although not statistically significant, the greatest overall daily total movement (total distance travelled) was found in small females. Small females also showed the greatest net daily movement (distance between denning locations) which suggests they had the highest rate of changing dens. The greater daily movement of small females did not convert to greater home ranges. There was no pattern in home range size with respect to the size and sex of lobsters.

Use of microspheres, fresh and microbound diets to ascertain dietary path, component size, and digestive gland functioning in phyllosoma of the spiny lobster Panulirus ornatus - Greg G. Smith; Michael W. Hall; Matthew Salmon (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The ability of Panulirus ornatus phyllosoma to capture, feed and process diets of different texture and particle size were studied during developmental stages I, III and V. Diets were captured using the spines and dactyl on the second and third pereiopods and brought to the oral cavity assisted by the second and third maxillapeds. Optimal capture was obtained when diets were a gelatinous‐muscular consistency, and hard particles were caught when embedded in a muscular carrier. A range of food textures, from gelatinous to hard, were able to be masticated in the oral cavity by stage V phyllosoma. Masticated particles were filtered by phyllosoma through spines and hairs in the proventriculum, during stages I‐II, and a filter press in stages III‐V. Maximum particle size passing into the midgut gland for digestion was 7, 3 and 0.5 μm in stage I, III and V phyllosoma, respectively. B cells were prominent in the proximal ends of the caece of stage V phyllosoma and were visible in live animals under light microscopy.

Survival of laboratory‐reared juvenile European lobster (Homarus gammarus) from three brood sources in southwestern Norway - K.E. Jørstad; T. S. Kristiansen; E. Farestveit; A.‐L. Agnalt; P.A. Prodöhl; M. Hughes; A. Ferguson; J.B. Taggert (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Experiments were carried out from June 2000 to April 2001 to compare survival of European lobster (Homarus gammarus) offspring (larvae and juveniles) from three brood sources, Kvitsøy Wild (KW), Kvitsøy Cultured (KC), and Rogaland Wild (RW), Norway. In the first set of experiments, newly hatched larvae (stage I) were raised in separate family tanks. All larvae groups survived to stage III/IV, although large variation in relative survival was observed among families within each of the three different female groups. Highest overall survival was observed for the RW group (12.8%), whereas no differences in overall survival were found between the KW (9.0%) and KC groups (9.6%). From stage III/IV, larvae from single family tank experiments were mixed in five “common garden” juvenile experiments. These lasted for 9 months, and the surviving juveniles were identified to family/female group using microsatellite DNA profiling. Significantly higher survival of the KW families (7.0%) was found compared with the KC (3.7%) and the RW families (3.2%), and differences in family ranking of relative survival values were evident between the KW and KC groups. The relative survival rate of the different groups was independent of female lobster size. An estimate based on only stage IV larvae reduced the difference in survival between the KW (11.4%) and KC (8.3%) group. The experiments provided evidence that cultured females (KC) are producing viable offspring with lower, but comparable survival to that of offspring from wild females (KW).

A systematic model for artificial reef site selection - J.S. Barber; D.M. Chosid; R.P. Glenn; K.A. Whitmore (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Although artificial reefs are commonly used throughout the world as tools to mitigate for habitat alteration, their development is rarely subjected to a rigorous site selection process. We developed a simple site selection model using the following seven systematic steps: exclusion mapping, depth and slope verification, surficial substrate assessment, data weighting and the subsequent ranking analysis, visual transect surveys, benthic air‐lift sampling, and larval settlement collector deployment. American lobster (Homarus americanas) was selected as the target species for these investigations owing to the local commercial importance of the species. Results from each step in this process ultimately allowed us to select a site for an artificial reef at a target depth that received little wave action, had no slope, and possessed a surficial substrate type that could support the weight of a reef. The site also had the presence of a natural larval supply and low species diversity before reef installation. Each step in this site selection model was designed for easy adaptation to suit the needs of various artificial reef projects.

Use of ultrasonic telemetry to determine the area of bait influence and trapping area of American lobster, Homarus americanus , traps - Winsor H. Watson; Walt Golet; Darren Scopel; Steve Jury (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Using ultrasonic telemetry, we measured the distance of attraction to a baited trap and then used this value to calculate the “area of bait influence”. This value, along with the mean daily home range for the same animals, was used to calculate the “trapping area” of an individual trap. Lobsters ( n = 25) were tracked inside a large underwater mesocosm containing a single baited lobster trap. During the study, 14 of the 25 lobsters approached the trap from a mean (+SEM) distance of 11.0 ± 0.7 m. Using this distance as the radius of a circle, the resulting circular area of bait influence was 380 m 2 . The movements of 18 lobsters were used to calculate a mean daily home range of 1002.4 ± 195.7 m 2 . The radius of a circle with this area (17.8 m) was then combined with the mean distance of bait attraction to calculate the trapping area, defined as: the total area from which the catch is drawn (2604.0 m 2 ; a circle with a radius of 28.8 m or 17.8 m + 11.0 m). A demonstration of the potential use of empirical data about lobster home ranges, trap dynamics and area of bait influence to improve our understanding of the relationship between the density of lobsters on the bottom and catch is included.

A modelled cost‐benefit analysis of hybrid PIT and conventional tagging scenarios - Paul Burch; Stewart D. Frusher; Simon Wotherspoon; Tom Polacheck (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Tag recovery rate is an important parameter for estimating exploitation and natural mortality in fished populations. Passive integrated transponder (PIT) technology can record 100% of PIT tagged animals passing within the detection limit of a PIT tag scanner. However PIT tags and PIT tag scanners are expensive compared with conventional visual tags and PIT tags are not detectable without scanners. We used simulation to evaluate the hybrid PIT tag which has the PIT tag incorporated into a conventional tag allowing both electronic detection capability by a scanner and visual detection by fishers. Simulated estimates of the precision and accuracy of exploitation and natural death rates for two lobster fishery management regimes: a 7‐month season for both sexes and a fishery with a 10‐ and 6‐month season for males and females, respectively, were used to determine the benefit of PIT tags. For a project budget of AU#DL200,000, hybrid PIT tags and 10% of the fleet being equipped with scanners produced more precise and accurate estimates of exploitation rate and natural death rate until tag reporting rate by fishers exceeds 40% for the two‐gender management regime and 90% for the 7‐month combined sex regime. Increasing the number of scanners to 20% of the fleet resulted in fewer hybrid PIT tags being inserted for the same cost and did not improve the precision or accuracy of estimates. Increasing the number of lobsters tagged by tagging during a higher catch rate period improved the precision of exploitation and natural death rate estimates at lower tag reporting rates for the conventional tag scenario, but did not alter the tag reporting rate required to make conventional tagging more beneficial than hybrid PIT tagging. Increased tag reporting rate by the 90% of the fleet that were not equipped with scanners had no significant impact on the precision or accuracy of estimates for either management regime.

Morphological colour change in the American lobster ( Homarus americanus ) in response to background colour and UV light - Michael F. Tlusty; Anita Metzler; Sara Huckabone; Sutara Suanda; Saskia Guerrier (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
American lobster ( Homarus americanus ) have a thick calcified cuticle, and do not exhibit rapid colour changes characteristic of other crustaceans. Thus, the plasticity of their coloration has been largely overlooked. Colour in lobsters is determined by the amount, location, and form of the carotenoid pigment astaxanthin, and it is possible for lobsters to alter colour by changing one of these characteristics of astaxanthin deposition. Here, short‐term colour variation in American lobster in response to environmental cues (background colour and ultraviolet (UV) light) was investigated in a laboratory experiment. Lobsters were reared in conditions controlling background colour (white, black) and UV light (present, absent). Digital photographic analysis was used to determine how these conditions influenced the luminescence (light or dark) of lobster colour, as well as the ratio of red to blue hues. Of the environmental variables considered within this experiment, UV light was the predominant factor, and caused lobsters to become darker in colour. In the absence of UV light, lobsters matched background colour, and turned darker in response to the darker background. Environmental matching has practical implications both for wild lobsters as they settle to the benthic habitat, and for enhancement programmes, to grow lobsters that are best suited for local habitats.

Captive breeding and larval development of the scyllarine lobster Petrarctus rugosus - T.S. Kumar; M. Vijayakumaran; T. Senthil Murugan; Dilip Kumar Jha; G. Sreeraj; S. Muthukumar (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The scyllarinid lobster, Petrarctus rugosus was reared to the postlarval nisto in 51 days at 24.9–26.5°C between November 2003 and April 2004 in Chennai, India. The lobster had eight phyllosomal instars. The eighth instars died while moulting to nisto. Instar VI was attained in 34 days with an average intermoult period of 5.4 days, whereas the last two moults took 17 days to complete. The captive breeders mated and bred several times between November and April with peak spawning in February. Repetitive breeding was observed with the brooding period varying from 11 to 17 days. Mean fecundity was 17 004 eggs ± 11 486 (SD). Hatching percentage was between 0.00 and 87.44.

Global aquaculture and its role in sustainable development - Rohana Subasinghe; Doris Soto; Jiansan Jia (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
Aquaculture is the fastest growing food‐producing sector in the world. It is developing, expanding and intensifying in almost all regions of the world. The global population is increasing, thus, the demand for aquatic food products is also increasing. Production from capture fisheries has levelled off and most of the main fishing areas have reached their maximum potential. Sustaining fish supplies from capture fisheries will, therefore, not be able to meet the growing global demand for aquatic food and aquaculture is considered to be an opportunity to bridge the supply and demand gap of aquatic food in most regions of the world. However, in our efforts to achieve this potential, the sector will face significant challenges. Key development trends indicate that the sector continues to intensify and diversify and is continuing to use new species and modify its systems and practices. Markets, trade and consumption preferences strongly influence the growth of the sector, with clear demands for the production of safe and quality products. As a consequence, increasing emphasis is placed on enhanced enforcement of regulation and better governance of the sector. It is increasingly realized that sustainable development and responsible production of aquaculture, in the long run, cannot be achieved without the full participation of the producers in the decision‐making and regulation process, which has led to efforts to empower farmers and their associations and move toward increasing self‐regulation. These factors are all contributing to an improvement in the management of the sector, typically through the promotion of ‘better management’ practices of producers. This review discusses the role of aquaculture, as at large a small‐scale farmer driven production sector, in the quest for sustainable development, reducing poverty and improving food security on a global scale.

Methods for reducing stressors and maintaining water quality associated with live fish transport in tanks: a review of the basics - Todd S. Harmon (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
Fish culture operations, public aquariums, fish biologists and aquatic researchers often have the need to transport live fish. These fish are frequently transported in live‐haul boxes by ground transportation. Activities involved with transporting fish, such as handling, confinement and exposure to sub‐optimal water quality, have the potential to create physiological changes in the fish because of increased stress. Because of the affiliation between stress and fish health, it is important to minimize the amount of potential stressors as well as to minimize the duration of exposure to stressors during these procedures. Furthermore, understanding aberrant environmental conditions and how they affect fish often leads to establishing new protocols that reduce stress. Increased survival rates and the arrival of healthy fish are dependent on transport and on the pre‐handling and post‐handling procedures associated with fish‐hauling operations.

Fish oil replacement in finfish nutrition - Giovanni M. Turchini; Bente E. Torstensen; Wing‐Keong Ng (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)
Unsustainable fishing practices have placed a heavy emphasis on aquaculture to meet the global shortfalls in the supply of fish and seafood, which are commonly accepted as the primary source of health‐promoting essential omega‐3 (n‐3 highly unsaturated fatty acids). However, dietary fish oil is required for the production of omega‐3‐rich farmed fish and this commodity, in a vicious circle, is at present derived solely from wild fisheries. Decreasing global availability coupled with the highly variable price of this resource has forced the aquaculture industry to investigate the possibilities of alternative dietary lipid sources. This review attempts to compile all principal information available regarding the effects of fish oil replacement for the diets of farmed finfish, analysing the findings using a comparative approach among different cultured fish species. The review initially focuses on the present situation with regard to the production, availability and main nutritional characteristics of fish oil and the principal alternative lipid sources (such as vegetable oils and animal fats). Following this, the effects of fish oil replacement in finfish nutrition on feed quality, fish performance, feed efficiency, fish lipid metabolism, final eating quality and related economic aspects are presented and discussed.

Chinese Abstracts (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)

Editorial - Sena De Silva; Albert Tacon (Reviews in Aquaculture, 2009)

Riparian protection and on‐farm best management practices for restoration of a lowland stream in an intensive dairy farming catchment: A case study - Robert J. Wilcock; Keith Betteridge; Donald Shearman; Chris R. Fowles; Mike R. Scarsbrook; Bruce S. Thorrold; Des Costall (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Poor water quality (high concentrations of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), suspended solids (SS), and faecal bacteria) in Waiokura Stream, southern Taranaki, New Zealand, is attributed to diffuse and point source (PS) inputs from dairy farming. Trend analysis of concentration time‐series data (2001–2008) and annual yields (i.e., stream load divided by catchment area) showed that significant improvements occurring since 2001 may be attributed to changes in farming practices and riparian management. Yields of filterable reactive P, total P and SS declined by 25–40% as a result of increased riparian protection, a reduction in dairy shed effluent (DSE) pond discharges from 8 to 6 with conversion to land irrigation, and a 25% reduction in the average application rate of P fertiliser. Median annual Escherichia coli concentrations declined at a rate of 116 per 100 ml per year, as a result of fewer PS discharges and improved riparian management. Thus, improvements in stream water quality were attributed to adoption of on‐farm best management practices, fewer DSE discharges and riparian management involving permanent livestock exclusion from stream banks and riparian planting to mitigate runoff from pasture. During 2001–06, N fertiliser use increased by 30% and, with a 130% increase in supplementary cattle feed during 2003–08, led to an increase in average milk solids production 1021 to 1262 kg ha −1 during 2001–06 with the increased production likely associated with increased N leaching losses. Total N and nitrate‐N concentrations and yields increased during 2001–07 as a result of the intensification in land use and increased N cycling. Stream invertebrate surveys using the macroinvertebrate community index (MCI) metric showed little improvement in MCI during 2002–07, probably because of the relatively short timeframe of this study and because water temperatures were not a limiting factor for invertebrate communities. The absence of native forest streams in the proximity of Waiokura Stream that might act as sources of sensitive species to recolonise the restored stream should also be considered as a constraint to improvements in biological community structure.

Modelling the time course of shade, temperature, and wood recovery in streams with riparian forest restoration - Robert J. Davies‐Colley; Mark A. Meleason; Raeme M.J. Hall; J. Christopher Rutherford (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Action is increasingly being taken in New Zealand and elsewhere to restore ecological function to streams through planting of riparian zones. We used simulation modelling to explore the relative performance of three strategies to restore the riparian zone of a pastoral stream to native forest by: (1) passive regeneration; (2) planting then abandonment of a Pinus radiata plantation; and (3) active restoration by planting selected native trees. We linked the forest model LINKNZ with a shade and temperature model (sWAIORA), and a wood model (OSU_STREAMWOOD) to simulate recovery trajectories for key forest stream attributes in hypothetical streams (1.3–14.0 m channel width) in the central North Island, New Zealand. Both active restoration strategies outperformed passive regeneration in shade, temperature and stream wood volume for most of the simulation time (800 years). Although the abandoned pine plantation provided greatest shade initially (

Regime shifts between clear and turbid water in New Zealand lakes: Environmental correlates and implications for management and restoration - Marc Schallenberg; Brian Sorrell (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
We reviewed lakes in New Zealand reported to have undergone regime shifts between macrophyte‐dominated clear water states and de‐vegetated, turbid states. Regime‐shifting lakes (RSLs) occurred along a wide latitudinal gradient. We obtained catchment land‐use data as well as data on the occurrences of introduced (non‐indigenous) macrophytes and herbivorous and benthivorous fish for the 37 RSLs and for 58 lakes with similar maximum depths and climates, but which had not been reported to have undergone regime shifts. All RSLs had a maximum depth Egeria densa and the introduced fish, Ameiurus nebulosus (catfish), Carassius auratus (goldfish), Scardinius erythrophthalmus (rudd), Cyprinus carpio (koi carp), and Tinca tinca (tench), were significantly correlated to regime shifts in lakes. Although the presence of other introduced aquatic macrophytes was not significantly correlated with RSLs, the number of exotic fish taxa present in lakes was strongly positively correlated with increasing prevalence of regime shifts. The strength of the correlations between land use and introduced species versus regime shifts illustrates a number of factors which could be managed to reduce the susceptibility of lakes to regime shifts and to restore lakes that have become de‐vegetated. Our findings also suggests that regime shifts in lakes were unlikely to have been common in New Zealand lakes before anthropogenic deforestation and introductions of introduced aquatic taxa.

Special issue on restoration of aquatic ecosystems - John M. Quinn (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)

Small‐scale population‐genetic differentiation in the New Zealand caddisfly Orthopsyche fimbriata and the crayfish Paranephrops planifrons - Peter J. Smith; Brian J. Smith (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
A portion of the cytochrome c oxidase I gene in the caddisfly Orthopsyche fimbriata and in the crayfish Paranephrops planifrons was used to evaluate population genetic differentiation and define conservation units at small spatial scales among neighbouring catchments in the central‐west North Island of New Zealand. Hierarchical analysis of populations from 14 streams found 20 haplotypes in O. fimbriata and 23 haplotypes in P. planifrons . Haplotype diversity was high in most catchments. In O. fimbriata , c. 55% of genetic diversity was distributed among catchments and c. 45% within streams; haplotypes were shared across catchments with only the most northern and southern catchments, separated by c. 100 km, not sharing haplotypes. Paranephrops planifrons had a greater proportion of the total genetic diversity distributed between catchments (c. 72%) and much less within streams (c. 18%); most catchments had unique haplotypes, with only one shared among neighbouring catchments. As a strong disperser, O. fimbriata may have crossed catchments, over evolutionary timescales, but recent deforestation over ecological timescales may prevent ongoing gene flow. In contrast, weak dispersers such as P. planifrons , have no inter‐catchment dispersal, except where there are downstream freshwater connections. Translocation of populations may be necessary to restore areas and should preferably be from within catchments.

Use of a traditional Maori harvesting method, the tau kōura, for monitoring kōura (freshwater crayfish, Paranephrops planifions ) in Lake Rotoiti, North Island, New Zealand - Ian A. Kusabs; John M. Quinn (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Sampling of kōura (freshwater crayfish Paranephrops planifrons ) to assess population abundance and structure in lakes is often difficult or impractical because of the absence of representative methods. The tau kôura is a traditional Maori method used to catch kôura in central North Island lakes by placing whakaweku (bundles of bracken fern Pteridium esculentum ) on the lake bed that kôura then colonise. It has advantages as a monitoring tool over conventional methods, such as baited traps and dive surveys, as it samples all kôura size classes, can be used in turbid waters and at a wide range of depths, and does not require expensive equipment or specialised expertise (e.g., SCUBA). We demonstrate its use to monitor kôura populations in Lake Rotoiti (mean depth 32 m), North Island, New Zealand. Application of the method allowed differences in population size structure to be distinguished between a shallow and a moderate depth site within Lake Rotoiti and to discern seasonal breeding patterns.

Lake sediment phosphorus release management—Decision support and risk assessment framework - Christopher W. Hickey; Max M. Gibbs (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The release of phosphorus (P) from the sediments of eutrophic lakes is often associated with the proliferation of nuisance algal blooms, especially cyanobacteria. The successful implementation of management actions aimed at reducing such algal blooms requires an integrated approach, including both external and internal nutrient loads. The internal load of P can be a significant source of P for primary production, with greatest inputs occurring when lakes stratify and the hypolimnetic waters become anoxic. We reviewed the nature and characteristics of New Zealand lakes in relation to factors which affect the application of technologies to manage internal P loads within individual lakes. New Zealand's windy maritime climate causes lakes to mix more deeply than lakes in continental areas, which are characterised by relatively hot, calm summers. We assessed a range of management options which may be used to control internal P loads, and considered these in a de cision‐support framework aimed at identifying the key factors which may limit successful application. Methods to reduce P release from sediments include: physical approaches—such as artificial destratification, hypolimnetic aeration, enhanced lake flushing, and dredging/discing; and geochemical approaches—such as the application of alum and iron as flocculation agents, and other products as “capping” materials. The capping materials may be either a passive physical barrier (e.g., sand, gravel, clay) or an active barrier. The active barrier systems are generally pervious chemical or geochemical materials capable of binding contaminants by adsorption or precipitation processes. A decision‐support and risk assessment framework is provided to assist managers in the development of appropriate strategies for reducing or controlling internal P loads, and thus cyanobacteria blooms. A review of the sediment characteristics of lakes in the Taupo volcanic zone showed marked variability in sediment P content, and elevated geothermal arsenic concentrations in some lake sediments, which may affect the efficacy of chemical capping agents, indicating that site‐specific consideration of capping agent dose is required.

Genetic principles for freshwater restoration in New Zealand - Peter J. Smith (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
Habitat fragmentation and destruction can lead to loss of genetic diversity within and among populations. One goal of restoration proj ects is to minimise loss of genetic diversity and to preserve genetic structure. Restoration may involve the release of wild‐caught or hatchery‐produced individuals to re‐establish or augment populations, and targets species with weak dispersal potential. Key criteria to consider in restoration projects are genetic divergence among the source populations and the number of individuals to transfer. Molecular tools provide quick and simple tools for assessing genetic diversity, but most markers are selectively neutral and should be supplemented with data on life‐history traits. The effective size of the population, N e , can be considerably smaller than the census N . Low numbers of founders will lead to a loss of genetic diversity, whereas subsequent breeding between closely related individuals will lead to inbreeding depression. Outbreeding depression can occur when offspring are produced from crosses between individuals from divergent populations, leading to the breakdown of co‐adapted gene complexes. Both inbreeding and outbreeding depression can lead to declines in fitness, and these effects may take several generations to become evident.

Integrated catchment management effects on flow, habitat, instream vegetation and macroinvertebrates in Waikato, New Zealand, hill‐country streams - John M. Quinn; Glenys F. Croker; Brian J. Smith; Margaret A. Bellingham (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
We investigated the short‐term effects on stream now, habitat, water temperature, periphyton biomass, and macroinvertebrate communities of applying integrated catchment management (ICM) to improve the poor economic and environmental performance of a hill farm used for sheep and cattle grazing. Stream responses to a range of changes in land use and riparian management were compared at four reaches in sub‐catchments within a pastoral hill farm area and nearby pasture and native forest reference reaches over 6 years before and 6 years after ICM implementation. At the whole catchment scale, annual runoff from the pasture treatment catchment before ICM was 7% higher than from the native forest reference catchment, and 7‐day low‐flow was 11% lower, but runoff and low now both declined by c. 6%/yr following afforestation (mainly Pinus radiata ) of 62% of the pasture catchment. At sub‐catchment level, pine afforestation with 10 m wide riparian setbacks (site A) was associated with declining channel width, water width, water temperature and periphyton biomass, and increasing periphyton organic content and changes in macroinvertebrate community indices and composition indicating recovery towards reference native forest stream conditions. Site M, involving a mix of partial pine afforestation (36% of catchment) and riparian cattle exclusion with riparian Populus deltoides planting, was associated with generally similar trends to site A. Riparian reforestation with natives and exclusion of all livestock was associated with more rapid reduction in water temperature and streambed cover by fines and macrophytes in a reach with a1m channel (site RS) than a 2 m wide channel (site RM). Reaches with active riparian tree planting had increased streambed cover by small wood and roots. In general, the macroinvertebrates indicated a “rubber band” response to ICM actions, with relatively rapid recovery towards native forest stream macroinvertebrate metric values and faunal composition, although restoration of composition was incomplete. Water temperature reduction was identified as a key factor in this improvement along with the 1–2 km proximity of colonists in undisturbed native forest streams.

Robust planning for restoring diadromous fish species in New Zealand's lowland rivers and streams - J.R. Leathwick; J. Elith; D. Rowe; K. Julian (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
We used statistical models to predict the distributions of 15 native diadromous fish species across New Zealand's river and stream network, and demonstrate their potential use for guiding the restoration of freshwater ecosystems. Models were fitted to an extensive collection of field samples describing the distributions of individual fish species, coupled with a set of environmental predictors chosen primarily for their functional relevance to diadromous fish species. Models were fitted to observations of species occurrence using boosted regression trees (BRT), an advanced regression technique that combines excellent predictive performance with good description of relationships between species occurrence and individual environmental predictors. Environment‐based predictions of species distributions were then made for all river and stream segments. We explored the use of these predictions to guide the selection of sites where diadromous species are likely to occur, and to set restoration targets, once a restoration site has been selected. Descriptions of the environmental preferences of the different species, based on relationships revealed by the statistical models, provide important clues to the likely responses of species to restoration of favourable environmental conditions, e.g., by restoring riparian shade and/or when reinstating access to/from the sea.

Wood enhances crayfish ( Paranephrops planifrons ) habitat in a forested stream - Stephanie M. Parkyn; Mark A. Meleason; Robert J. Davies‐Colley (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The mechanisms of interaction between stream life and habitat are often complex and poorly understood. We explored the response of a freshwater crayfish ( Paranephrops planifrons ) to the functions of large wood with a view towards possible future use of wood in stream restoration in New Zealand. We compared three sub‐reach types within a native forest stream in the central North Island, New Zealand; complex wood‐rich, simple (straight) woodless, and geomorphically complex woodless. Stable logs embedded across the channel created considerable habitat heterogeneity, particularly diversity of substrate, water depths and velocities, that was associated with a significantly higher abundance and biomass of crayfish compared with a straight woodless reach. Although undercut banks in woodless sub‐reaches also supported abundant crayfish, wood increased the proportion of stream area used as habitat, apparently by providing surrogate edge habitat. Wood appeared to increase stream complexity by retaining streambed substrate and providing microhabitat with stable cover.

Effects of riparian manipulation on stream communities in small streams: Two case studies - I.G. Jowett; J. Richardson; J.A.T. Boubée (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
The effects of riparian manipulation in New Zealand are described for two case studies, one a short‐term study of the effects of the removal of riparian vegetation on fish, and the second, a long‐term study of the effect of re‐establishment of riparian vegetation on fish and benthic macro invertebrates. The first case study was an experiment carried out between November 2001 and May 2002. Overhanging bank vegetation and in‐stream wood were removed from short reaches of a small pastoral stream that had intact riparian margins, resulting in a change in stream structure with the formation of shallow uniform runs rather than pool and riffle structures as in unmodified reaches. The removal of bank cover and consequential instream habitat changes reduced inanga ( Galaxias maculatus ) densities by a factor of four within months of vegetation removal, showing the importance of instream cover and habitat to inanga. Adult longfin eel ( Anguilla dieffenbachii ) also became less abundant in the cleared reaches, but elvers ( Anguilla spp.) became more abundant. In the second case study, pastoral sections in two small streams draining from native forest catchments were restored in 1995/96 by planting riparian vegetation and preventing stock access. After 10 years, the restoration efforts had more than doubled the numbers of giant kokopu (G. argenteus ) and redfin bullies ( Gobiomorphus huttoni ), slightly increased numbers of banded kokopu (G. fasciatus ), and decreased shortfin eel ( A. australis ) numbers by about 40%. The macroinvertebrate communities changed so that they became more similar to those at upstream native forest reference sites. These two case studies show that riparian margins can influence the composition of the fish and macroinvertebrate communities in small streams through the effects on cover, instream habitat and probably water temperature. Riparian restoration was most effective for the fish species that use cover and pool habitat.

Predicting suitability of cockle Austrovenus stutchburyi restoration sites using hydrodynamic models of larval dispersal - Carolyn J. Lundquist; John W. Oldman; Matthew J. Lewis (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2009)
An important aspect of shellfish restoration projects is to evaluate whether potential sites are likely to be recolonised naturally once disturbances are removed and habitats are restored. Similarly, if active translocation or reseeding of juveniles or adults is undertaken, it is important to understand whether these introduced populations will be self‐maintaining in future, and whether any seed they produce are likely to be retained within the restored area. We used a combined hydrodynamic and particle tracking model to predict larval dispersion patterns for the common cockle Austrovenus stutchburyi under different hydrodynamic scenarios for seven release locations in Whangarei Harbour, New Zealand. Our results implied that sites varied substantially in their potential for self‐seeding and for exporting seed to other locations. For sites with more restricted dispersal, the model predicted that most larvae originating at these sites would settle inside the release region (68–94% for passive particle simulations), whereas relatively few larvae originating from the other release sites settled at these sites. In contrast, model larvae released from sites exhibiting high connectivity dispersed to all sub‐regions in the harbour, and export outside of the model region was high. Forthcoming field validation of these model predictions will result in better integration of hydrodynamic connectivity in whole estuary restoration programs.

Two new genera and three new species of leeches (Hirudinida: Piscicolidae) from New Zealand marine fishes - Eugene M. Burreson; Julianne I. Williams (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
The marine leech fauna of New Zealand is poorly known and based primarily on studies by Richardson in the 1950s. Three new species have recently been discovered. Dollfusobdella kaikourae n. gen., n. sp. is described from Kaikoura, New Zealand parasitising pectoral fins of Scorpaena cardinalis , and thornfish, Bovichtus variegatus . It is characterised by a cylindrical body widest at the posterior portion of the urosome and tapering gradually to the oral sucker; the total length is not known to exceed 10 mm. The urosome segments are 3‐annulate, each with large tubercles dorsally and smaller tubercles ventrally, but lacking pulsatile vesicles. The reproductive system has five pairs of testisacs and a small bursa. Leporinabdella digglesi n. gen., n. sp. is described from Manukau Harbour, Auckland, from the body and mouth of yellowbelly flounder, Rhombosolea leporina . It is characterised by a wide, flat body not known to exceed 10 mm total length and a large caudal sucker. Urosome segments are 3‐annulate with lateral conical tubercles on each annulus, but lacking pulsatile vesicles. The reproductive system has five pairs of testisacs and a large bursa. Pontobdella novaezaelandiae n. sp. is described from a single specimen collected near Wellington. It is characterised by a large oral sucker without a fringe and lacking papillae, a moderate‐size caudal sucker, and four annuli per segment with large tubercles on the first three annuli.

Tidal flows in Te Aumiti (French Pass), South Island, New Zealand - Craig Stevens; Philip Sutton; Murray Smith; Ralph Dickson (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Observations of tidal flows in Te Aumiti (French Pass), the fastest such flows in New Zealand, were conducted in 2006 using a vessel‐mounted acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP), pressure sensors, a current meter mooring, drifters, and microwave radar. The suite of measurements revealed spring tide currents exceeding 4 m s ‐1 , but only in the throat of the pass. The pressure sensors either side of the pass indicated a phase‐shift in the tide of 26 min. Drifters illustrated eddying motion, with the deep scour hole on the NE side of the narrows forming a focal point on both phases of the tide. Notably, the drifters also provided evidence of an upstream eddy in the same location during southwestward flows. The ADCP recorded vertical flows of up to 0.6 m s ‐1 . The flow was subcritical as defined by external and internal Froude numbers, and scaling analysis suggests that the driving pressure gradient was balanced by the acceleration.

Estradiol‐17β and testosterone levels in the cockle Fulvia mutica during the annual reproductive cycle - Wenguang Liu; Qi Li; Lingfeng Kong (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
In this study, we investigated seasonal variations in the concentrations of estradiol‐17β (E 2 ) and testosterone (T) in the gonad of the cockle Fulvia mutica from March 2004 to February 2005 in relation to the reproductive cycle. Histological data showed that F. mutica is a hermaphrodite bivalve species, and gametogenesis took place during winter‐spring (November‐April) and spawning occurred in summer (May‐June) when water temperature was higher. E 2 and T concentrations were measured by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). E 2 concentrations varied between 7.27 and 32.63 pg/g wet weight and T concentrations ranged from 22.83 to 77.15 pg/g wet weight throughout the year. Both steroids exhibited a similar annual pattern that correlated with the reproductive cycle. The two peaks of E 2 and T concentrations in November and May‐June occurred at critical moments of the F mutica reproductive cycle: the onsets of gametogenesis and of the spawning period. E 2 andT concentrations were low during the non‐reproductive period extending from July to October. These results suggest that E 2 and T could play a role as endogenous modulators in the reproductive cycle of F. mutica .

Within‐colony variation in skeletal mineralogy of Adeonellopsis sp. (Cheilostomata: Bryozoa) from New Zealand - Katherine E. Wejnert; Abigail M. Smith (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Three colonies of the erect, robust branching, cheilostome bryozoan Adeonellopsis sp. were collected from Doubtful Sound, New Zealand, to investigate within‐colony variation in carbonate mineralogy. One‐hundred‐and‐twenty‐one sections from 9 branches were found to contain mostly aragonite, with calcite ranging from 1.1 to 7.3 wt% (mean ± SD = 2.4 ± 1.2 wt%, n = 120). The magnesium (Mg) content in calcite ranged from 5.3 to 13.1 wt% magnesium carbonate (8.8 ± 1.0 wt% MgCO 3 ; n = 120). Calcite content decreased with increasing age proximally along the branch, indicating that secondary thickening is achieved with aragonite. In contrast, an oscillating trend in Mg content along branches suggests that seasonal or interannual environmental parameters may influence this geochemical parameter. Mineralogical variability highlights the need for multiple samples from the same colony to be measured when determining quantitative carbonate mineralogy in bryozoans. Bimineralic bryozoans such as Adeonellopsis sp. may have lower preservation potential than monomineralic bryozoans, and consequently may not survive diagenesis to become fossils. Bimineralic species may also be more vulnerable to dissolution pressure and possible ocean acidification than monomineralic calcitic taxa.

Fifth national survey of pesticides in groundwater in New Zealand - Sally Gaw; Murray E. Close; Mark J. Flintoft (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
A total of 163 wells were sampled in New Zealand as part of the 2006 national survey of pesticides in groundwater. The aims of the survey were to update the national overview of pesticides in New Zealand's groundwater systems, to investigate temporal variation in pesticide concentrations between surveys, and to identify environmental factors associated with pesticide contamination of groundwater. Thirty‐one wells (19%) tested positive for pesticides, with 13 (8%) wells having two or more pesticides detected. Pesticides were measured in one or more wells in 11 out of the 14 regions sampled; they were not detected in wells from the Northland, Hawke's Bay, and Taranaki regions. Nineteen different pesticides and metabolites were detected in groundwater. Herbicides were the most common pesticide group detected (12), followed by insecticides (5) and fungicides (2). There was a total of 50 pesticide detections and, of these, 37 were herbicides and 25 were triazine herbicides. Levels of only two of the 50 pesticide detections exceeded 1 μg litre ‐1 . Alachlor was detected in one well at a concentration of 34 μg litre ‐1 exceeding the maximum acceptable value (MAV) of 20 μ g litre ‐1 . All other pesticides were detected at concentrations less than 6% of the MAV. There were significant differences between shallow and deep wells with shallow wells being associated with pesticide detections. Higher dissolved oxygen and nitrate concentrations (indicating recent water), lower groundwater pH levels, urban and horticultural land use and unconfined aquifers were associated with pesticide detections. Comparisons of total pesticide concentrations in wells included in the previous surveys indicate that total target pesticide concentrations in groundwater are decreasing.

Otoliths of common Australian temperate fish: a photographic guide. By DianneFurlani, RosemaryGales and DavidPemberton. Published in 2007 by CSIRO Publishing, 150 Oxford St (P.O. Box 1139), Collingwood, Victoria 3066, Australia. 208 p., hardback. ISBN 9780643092556. Price: au$140.00 (email: publishing.sales@csiro.au). - Chris Lalas (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)

Average score per metric: An alternative metric aggregation method for assessing wadeable stream health - Kevin J. Collier (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Integrating multiple metrics derived from stream macroinvertebrate communities into single scores that reflect ecological condition can bridge the needs of multiple groups using biomonitoring data. Macroinvertebrate metrics from 511 Waikato, New Zealand, stream samples were standardised by their maximum observed value. Metric redundancy and optimisation processes identified three standardised metrics from an initial set of 17 that provided greatest discrimination between reference sites and those influenced by urbanisation or high levels of pastoral development: the richness of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera excluding Hydroptilidae (EPT*), % EPT* and the macroinvertebrate community index (MCI). The mean of these standardised metrics was used to calculate the average score per metric (ASPM). Narrative condition bands were developed based on the lower SD of individual metrics for reference samples to distinguish “very high” values, and metric quartiles between this point and a hypothetical worst‐case community were used to define “high”, “moderate”, “low”, and “very low” bands. When compared with its component metrics, the ASPM distinguished reference conditions and low‐moderate levels of catchment modification and local habitat degradation more accurately than EPT* richness or MCI, and displayed lower temporal variability within reference sites than either EPT* metric. The ASPM was calculated for an independent test data set of urban and reference sites which, respectively, were allocated to low‐very low and high‐very high narrative condition bands. This analysis suggests that prudent application of the ASPM can provide a parsimonious and effective screening tool for assessing the condition of wadeable streams where more complex methods are not practical.

Abundance and demography of bottlenose dolphins in Dusky Sound, New Zealand, inferred from dorsal fin photographs - Rohan J. C. Currey; Lucy E. Rowe; Stephen M. Dawson; Elisabeth Slooten (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
The bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) of Dusky Sound, Fiordland, New Zealand are a little‐studied group at the southern limit of the species range. Conducting a photo‐identification census and capture‐recapture analyses, we estimated there were 102 (CV = 0.9%) bottlenose dolphins in Dusky Sound during summer 2007/08, the first abundance estimate for this population. We did not encounter individuals from Doubtful Sound in Dusky Sound, suggesting little or no interchange between these neighbouring populations. Using a sex‐prediction model derived from laser‐metric photographs of dolphins in Doubtful Sound, we predicted the sexes of 79 individuals (98–99% of adults and sub‐adults) in Dusky Sound. Our predictions provided a sex ratio of 35 males to 44 females, not significantly different to a 1:1 ratio (G = 1.02, P > 0.05). High resighting rates of individual dolphins suggest the population may be resident, with dolphins observed throughout the entire fiord system.

Proximate composition, energy content, and fatty acid composition of marine species from Campbell Plateau, New Zealand - L. Meynier; P. C. H. Morel; D. D. S. Mackenzie; A. Macgibbon; B. L. Chilvers; P. J. Duignan (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Campbell Plateau is an important fishing ground for the main commercial New Zealand species. Yet, studies on trophic interactions between species and their nutritional values are limited. The objectives of this study were to determine the proximate composition and energy contents of selected commercial and non‐commercial marine species from Campbell Plateau and their fatty acid (FA) composition, and to evaluate the degree to which species can be differentiated by their FA compositions. We analysed 43 fish specimens from 5 different species ( Macruronus novaezelandiae, Lepidorhynchus denticulatus, Pseudophycis backus, Hemerocoetes spp. and Squalus acanthias ), 17 cephalopod specimens from 2 species ( Nototodarus sloani and Enteroctopus zealandicus ), and 6 Metanephrops challengeri (crustacean). The variation of energy contents between fish species was not significant, but their lipid and protein contents varied significantly. FA signatures distinguished the species analysed and, at a broader scale, the type of habitat. Within‐specie s variability was important for benthic species. In general, the diet inference from FA trophic markers was consistent with reported diets from stomach contents.

A preliminary photo‐identification study of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) in Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand - J. Berghan; K. D. Algie; K.A. Stockin; N. Wiseman; R. Constantine; G. Tezanos‐Pinto; F. Mourão (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Analysis of photographs of individual bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) taken in Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand between 2000 and 2003 resulted in 162 uniquely identifiable individuals being included in the Hauraki Gulf bottlenose dolphin photo‐identification catalogue. Seventy percent of these catalogued animals were sighted more than once, with sighting frequency ranging from one to eleven encounters. Seasonality was apparent inside the gulf with the majority of observations occurring betweenApril and June, inclusively. Comparison of individual photo‐identification catalogues between Bay of Islands and Hauraki Gulf resulted in 59% of the individuals catalogued in Hauraki Gulf being confirmed as occurring in both locations. However, 41% of individuals did not match with animals in the Bay of Islands catalogue, possibly indicating a larger population size than previously suggested for the northeastern region of the North Island, and/or the possibility of individuals overlapping in range between at least two sites along this coastline.

Origin of yellowtail kingfish, Seriola lalandi , from Lord Howe Island, Australia, inferred from otolith chemistry - Heather M. Patterson; Stephen E. Swearer (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Yellowtail kingfish, Seriola lalandi (Family Carangidae), sustain important commercial and recreational fisheries in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. However, little is known about their population structure, particularly whether the kingfish around Lord Howe Island (LHI) comprise a distinct stock, separate from that of the NSW stock. We examined the otolith chemistry from juvenile kingfish collected from LHI, several NSW sites and Elizabeth and Middleton reefs (EMR) and compared those elemental signatures to the juvenile portion of adult otoliths collected from LHI to determine where the adults may have originated. Our results indicate a robust separation in otolith signatures from different locations (error rate of classification ranged from 3.5% to 9.9%), and suggest that a significant proportion of the adult kingfish sampled (28%) may have originated in the waters around LHI or nearby EMR. Further research may indicate that the management of kingfish in NSW waters could benefit from a more spatially explicit strategy.

Investigation of nutrient limitation status and nutrient pathways in Lake Hayes, Otago, New Zealand: A case study for integrated lake assessment - Tina K. Bayer; Marc Schallenberg; Candace E. Martin (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
We present a case study illustrating an integrated approach to lake water quality assessment, for Lake Hayes, Otago, New Zealand. This approach improved understanding of the biological importance of several macro‐ and micronutrients and their major pathways (including groundwater), and, coupled with trophic state monitoring, could be the basis for more effective management of lakes exhibiting algal blooms. A nutrient enrichment bioassay experiment found that additions of zinc and nitrogen stimulated productivity, indicating that phytoplankton growth in the lake may have been limited by these nutrients. Nutrient data confirmed the potential for nitrogen limitation at times. The main source of nutrients to the lake was the surface inflow, but almost 30% of the nitrate input entered the lake via a groundwater‐fed spring, highlighting the importance of nutrients in groundwater as a potential driver of algal proliferation. A recent shift in phytoplankton community structure from dominance of cyanobacteria and desmids to dominance of mobile, mixotrophic dinoflagellates indicates that the dominant phytoplankter may no longer be restricted to using only epilimnetic and inorganic forms of nutrients. This integrated assessment of Lake Hayes also suggested strong internal phosphorus cycling, which could explain why phytoplankton blooms continue despite improved catchment nutrient management.

Bostrychia (Rhodomelaceae, Rhodophyta) species of New Zealand, and relationships in the Southern Hemisphere - Giuseppe C. Zuccarello; John A. West (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Bostrychia is a widespread genus and has recently received considerable molecular attention, leading to insights into its evolution, and nomenclatural changes. We investigated the species of Bostrychia in New Zealand, to produce an identification key and highlight the nomenclatural changes of these species. We incorporated into a molecular phylogeny two species prominent in New Zealand ( B. gracilis, B. vaga ) that have not be investigated phylogenetically before. Our results show thatthree species of Bostrychia ( B. arbuscula, B. gracilis, B. vaga ), mainly restricted to New Zealand, share a common ancestor. Only B. vaga is known outside New Zealand. This restricted distribution is unusual for species within this genus in which many are widespread. A phylogeographic study of another New Zealand and Southern Hemisphere species, B. intricata , indicates that this species consists of several lineages that are found locally. These lineages, and physiological difference between lineages, suggest that cryptic species may be found within this species, as is common in many other red algal species. Our data highlight the unique nature of the New Zealand flora within this common genus and suggest continued investigation is warranted.

Gobiopterus in New Zealand (Teleostei: Gobiidae), with observations on sexual dimorphism - R. M. McDowall; B. O. David (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
The small, transparent gobioid Gobiopterus semivestitus is recorded for the first time from New Zealand, from a tributary of Ngunguru River, near Whangarei, Northland. Distinctive features of its sexual dimorphism are reported, in particular enlarged fins and greatly enlarged jaw dentition in the male. The origins of this species in New Zealand waters are uncertain: it could have been here for some time, unobserved; it could have dispersed recently to New Zealand across the Tasman Sea from Australia; or it could have arrived in ships’ ballast water.

Description of new species of Setosabatieria and Desmolaimus (Nematoda: Monhysterida) and a checklist of New Zealand free‐living marine nematode species - Daniel Leduc; Janet Gwyther (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Two new marine nematode species are described from intertidal sediments in southern New Zealand. Setosabatieria australis sp. nov. is characterised by an amphideal fovea with 3.5 turns, 7–9 small pre‐cloacal supplements, and 2–5 sub‐cephalic setae per file. Setosabatieria australis sp. nov. differs from all known species of the genus in having L‐shaped spicules with a hollow median region, in contrast to the typical curved shape. Desmolaimus courti sp. nov. is characterised by the presence of four long (15 pan) cephalic setae, two cuticularised rings in the buccal cavity, and a lightly cuticularised pharyngeal lumen. It differs from other species of the genus by having eight sub‐cephalic setae. A total of 116 marine species are included in the checklist of New Zealand free‐living nematodes, with the majority of records from the coast of Campbell and Auckland islands from the early part of the 20th century. Most records were from habitats such as seaweed or sponge, which may explain the high proportion (>50%) of cosmopolitan species recorded in New Zealand to date. Little is known about the sediment nematode fauna, particularly in deeper waters (>120 m), from where there are no records to date.

Biology and diet of Coryphaenoides subserrulatus and Etmopterus baxteri from the Puysegur region, southern New Zealand - M. R. L. Jones (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Aspects of the biology and diet of Coryphaenoides subserrulatus and Etmopterus baxteri from hill features in the Puysegur region, southern New Zealand are described. More female C. subserrulatus than males were retained, and females were significantly larger than males. Coryphaenoides subserrulatus fed primarily on Calanoida, the overall weight and number of which increased with fish size. Females consumed significantly heavier food items than males. For males, the number of food items consumed increased significantly with fish size, but not for females. There were more male E. baxteri than females, females were significantly larger, and both sexes fed on teleosts and Teuthoidea. No relationships between the numbers or weight of food items and increasing fish size or sex were apparent. Coryphaenoides subserrulatus and E. baxteri fed on benthopelagic organisms, and the diet of C. subserrulatus may vary spatially in New Zealand waters.

Use of radiography to determine age class and assist with the post‐mortem diagnostics of a Bryde's whale ( Balaenoptera brydei ) - K.A. Stockin; N. Wiseman; A. Hartman; N. Moffat; W. D. Roe (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Vessel collisions are considered an important source of mortality for some cetacean species, and this is likely for the New Zealand Bryde's whale ( Balaenoptera brydei ), a species currently classified as “nationally critical”. Nevertheless, the occurrence and frequency of vessel strikes involving whales in New Zealand waters is yet to be systematically evaluated. Herein, we document the use of radiography as a diagnostic tool to examine the pectoral nippers of a Bryde's whale carcass recovered from Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand. To determine age class, radiographs were used to assess the degree of epiphysial fusion in the pectoral flippers. Additionally, evidence of bone damage and repair was examined in an attempt to clarify cause of mortality. Radiographs were definitive for age‐class determination, revealing the specimen to be a juvenile, as evidenced by open physes, incompletely ossified epiphyses, and incompletely ossified cuboidal bones of the carpus. The degree of epiphyseal development of the distal radial and ulnar secondary ossification centres suggests a late stage two or early stage three degree of development. Radiographs were less definitive in clarifying cause of mortality. Bilateral distal antebrachial fractures were observed on both the left and right pectoral flippers. The fractures evident in the distal right antebrachium of the left flipper were considered atypical of acute blunt trauma. The fracture fragment ends were not sharp edged as expected, but instead exhibited the appearance of remodelled and/or pulverised fracture fragment ends. Regardless of cause, the degree of bone remodelling and callus formation is evidence that the whale likely survived any initial trauma, thus suggesting mortality was not immediate. However, the absence of appropriate histopathology sampling and a systematic necropsy prevent confirmation of this hypothesis.

Grazer effects on algal assemblages and mussel recruitment in two different mid‐intertidal communities in the Cook Strait, New Zealand - Nicole E. Phillips; Elanor Hutchison (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Molluscan grazers were experimentally excluded for 24 months (December 2003 ‐ December 2005) from the mid‐intertidal zone of the rocky shore at two sites at each of two locations in New Zealand where intertidal communities differ dramatically: Wellington Harbour (dominated by sessile invertebrates), and the Cook Strait (= south) coast (mostly bare rock). Excluding grazers resulted in immediate increases in foliose algae, and gradual increases in filamentous algae. After 2 years, the mean cover of both groups was similar in exclusion plots in both locations (22–24%). Crustose algae and microalgae also increased in grazer exclusion plots, but mussel recruitment did not. There were no differences in response to grazer exclusion between the two locations in the final algal assemblage or density of new mussel recruits, but the species of mussel were different: Mytilus galloprovincialis recruited in Wellington Harbour, and Xenostrobus pulex on the south coast. Thus, molluscan grazers in this system have a strong effect on the mid‐zone algal assemblage of the intertidal, and this effect was generally similar across these two markedly different intertidal communities.

Erratum (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)

Reviews in environmental science and management. Predictions for use in resource management: the concept of the composite model with estuary case studies. By Malcolm O.Green and ChrisHatton. Published in 2007 by Southern Cross University Press, P.O. Box 157, Lismore NSW 2480, Australia (http://scupress.scu.edu.au). 146 p.; softcover. ISBN: 1–875855–66–1. Price au$45.00. - Shane Kelly (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)

Maintenance of cyanotoxin production by cryopreserved cyanobacteria in the New Zealand culture collection - Susanna A. Wood; Lesley L. Rhodes; Serean L. Adams; Janet E. Adamson; Kirsty F. Smith; John F. Smith; H. Robin Tervit; S. Craig Cary (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
A culture collection of freshwater planktonic and benthic cyanobacteria collected from sites across New Zealand has been established at the Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand. Limited resources led to uncertainty regarding the long‐term maintenance of this collection. The present study demonstrates cryopreservation to be a viable method for long‐term storage of cyanobacteria. Seventeen of 20 strains evaluated were successfully cryopreserved using the permeating cryopreservation agent dimethyl sulfoxide (Me 2 SO), at a final concentration of 15% (v/v). Cyanotoxin analysis was undertaken on selected strains known to produce microcystins, nodularin, anatoxin‐a, and saxitoxins. All strains retained their ability to produce these toxins following cryopreservation.

Methyl mercury in brown trout ( Salmo trutta ) in Arahura River, New Zealand - Jonathan P. Kim; Timothy Rochford (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Methyl mercury (MeHg) concentrations were determined in brown trout ( Salmo trutta ) from the Arahura River, on the West Coast of the South Island, New Zealand. Trout fell into two groups, one with very low MeHg concentrations (0.002–0.018 μg g ‐1 ) and the other with relatively higher MeHg concentrations (0.096–0.220 μ g g ‐1 ). Trout elevated in MeHg had a terrestrial carbon signature and fed at a higher trophic level than trout with low MeHg concentrations. The strontium: calcium ratio in the otoliths of two fish revealed that a trout with low MeHg values had lived in the sea for part of its life, whereas a trout with higher MeHg concentration had lived solely in the river. Sea‐running trout were eating prey of marine origin, whereas the river‐resident fish were consuming prey at a higher trophic level in the food web, which may result in markedly different MeHg concentrations in these fish.

Use of the introduced bivalve, Musculista senhousia , by generalist parasites of native New Zealand bivalves - Aroha Miller; Graeme J. Inglis; Robert Poulin (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Introduced species are often thought to do well because of an escape from natural enemies. However, once established, they can acquire a modest assemblage of enemies, including parasites, in their new range. Here we quantified prevalence and effects of infection with copepods (family Myicolidae) and pea crabs ( Pinnotheres novaezelandiae ), in three mussel species, the non‐native Musculista senhousia , and two native mussels, Perna canaliculus and Xenostrobus pulex , at Bucklands Beach, Auckland, New Zealand. Copepod prevalence was highest in X. pulex (17.9%), whereas pea crab prevalence was highest in P. canaliculus (33.6%). Both parasites infected M. senhousia , but at a much lower prevalence. Dry tissue weight was significantly lower in P. canaliculus infected with pea crabs. In addition, we experimentally investigated host species selection by pea crabs. In an experimental apparatus, pea crabs showed a significant attraction to P. canaliculus , but not so for X. pulex or M. senhousia . When the mussels were presented in combination, pea crabs showed a weak attraction for X. pulex . Pea crab attraction to M. senhousia was not significant. It appears that the introduced M. senhousia largely escapes the detrimental effects of infection with either parasite species compared with native mussels occurring in sympatry.

Transient wind‐driven coastal upwelling on a shelf with varying width and orientation - Peter C. Longdill; Terry R. Healy; Kerry P. Black (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Cross‐correlations between along‐shelf wind stress and both along‐ and cross‐shelf currents within the central Bay of Plenty, New Zealand show the circulation during spring‐summer to be highly responsive to wind events. Current meter records indicate that upwelling‐favourable wind stresses generate upwelling dynamics in both mean and fluctuating senses. Both thermistor moorings and satellite inferred temperature data record the outcropping of this cool water following upwelling‐favourable wind stresses. The upwelling circulation provides an efficient mechanism for the periodic delivery of cool (c. x ‐N >80 μ g litre ‐1 ) water to the coastal zone during spring. Historical wind forcing data suggest that the wind‐forced dynamics described were responsible for a major toxic algal bloom within the Bay of Plenty during 1992–93.

Low‐dose alum application trialled as a management tool for internal nutrient loads in Lake Okaro, New Zealand - W. J. Paul; D. P. Hamilton; M. M. Gibbs (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Aluminium sulfate (alum) was applied to Lake Okaro, a eutrophic New Zealand lake with recurrent cyanobacterial blooms, to evaluate its suitability for reducing trophic status and bloom frequency. The dose yielded 0.6 g aluminium m ‐3 in the epilimnion Before dosing, pH exceeded 8 in epilimnetic waters but was optimal for flocculation (6–8) below 4 m depth. After dosing, there was no significant change in water clarity, hypolimnetic pH decreased to 5.5 , and soluble aluminium exceeded recommended guidelines for protection of freshwater organisms. Epilimnetic phosphate concentrations decreased from 40 to 5 mg m ‐3 and total nitrogen (TN):total phosphorus (TP) mass ratios increased from 7:1 to 37:1. The dominant phytoplankton species changed from Anabaena spp. before dosing, to Ceratium hirudinella , then Staurastrum sp. after dosing. Detection of effectiveness of dosing may have been limited by sampling duration and design, as well as the low alum dose. The decrease in hypolimnetic pH and epilimnetic TP, and increase in Al 3+ and chlorophyll a , are attributed to the low alkalinity lake water and coincidence of alum dosing with a cyanobacterial bloom and high pH.

Factors influencing juvenile eel ( Anguilla spp.) survival in lowland New Zealand streams - E. Gray Noth; R I. C. C. Francis; D. J. Jellyman (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Factors influencing the survival rates of juvenile longfin ( Anguilla dieffenbachii ) and shortfin eels ( A. australis ) (

Spatial patterns in the composition of shallow‐water macroinvertebrate communities of a large New Zealand river - Kevin J. Collier; Adrian Lill (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Identifying the environmental factors influencing biotic patterns in large rivers will assist with extrapolating biological monitoring results to broader scale conclusions about river condition. In the present study, we collected macroinvertebrates and physico‐chemical data at 47 shallow‐water (

The Atlantic salmon: genetics, conservation and management. Edited by EricVerspoor, LeeStradmeyer and Jennifer L.Nielsen. Published in 2007 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, United Kingdom (www.blackwellpublishing.com). 520 p., hardcover. ISBN 978–1‐4051–1582–7. Price: UK#BP105.00.Subtidal invertebrates of New Zealand: a divers’ guide. By StephenWing. Published in 2008 by Canterbury University Press, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand. 148 p., softcover. ISBN: 978–1‐877257–58–2. Price: NZ$25. - Michel Dedual; Richard B. Taylor (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)

Response of Gobiomorphus hubbsi (bluegill bully) to odours of conspecific fish in the presence of natural stream odours: Does habitat have an influence? - Nicola K. Atkinson; Michael K. Joy (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
This study tested the ability of bluegill bullies ( Gobiomorphus hubbsi ) to detect and respond to the odour of conspecific fish upstream under neutrally odoured (rainwater) and naturally odoured (stream water) conditions. Bluegill bullies were presented with a choice of two flows of water to move into, one of which contained the odour of conspecific fish. Bluegill bullies displayed a concentration‐dependent reaction under neutral water conditions, where they were attracted to low concentrations of conspecific odour, but repelled by high concentrations of odour. This result was not consistent under naturally odoured water conditions, where no attraction towards conspecific odour occurred at low odour concentrations and only a weak avoidance of odour occurred at high concentrations. The differences revealed between natural and neutral water trials suggest the use of habitat odours over conspecific odours and cast doubt on previous studies only conducted under neutral conditions.

Stomach contents of common dolphin ( Deiphinus sp.) from New Zealand waters - L. Meynier; K.A. Stockin; M. K. H. Bando; P. J. Duignan (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
This paper provides the first report of stomach contents of common dolphin ( Deiphinus sp.) from New Zealand waters. We examined 53 stomachs from 42 stranded and 11 by‐caught common dolphin from the North Island of New Zealand between 1997 and 2006. Although the diet of by‐caught and stranded common dolphin comprised a diverse range of fish and cephalopod species, the prevalent prey were arrow squid Nototodarus spp., jack mackerel Trachurus spp., and anchovy Engraulis australis . Stranded dolphins that originated from coastal waters, and dolphins by‐caught within neritic waters, fed on both neritic and oceanic prey. Moreover, this mixed prey composition was evident in the diet of common dolphin by‐caught in oceanic waters, suggesting inshore/offshore movements of common dolphin on a diel basis.

Reproductive biology of mangrove jack ( Lutjanus argentimacuiatus ) in northeastern Queensland, Australia - D. J. Russell; A. J. McDougall (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Lutjanus argentimacuiatus is an Indo‐Pacific species that inhabits riverine, coastal and offshore reef habitats. An investigation of the reproductive biology of Lutjanus argentimacuiatus in northeastern Queensland waters (Australia) was undertaken between 1999 and 2002. Individuals in inshore estuarine and freshwater riverine habitats were mostly immature whereas those captured in offshore reef waters were predominantly mature. Males matured at a smaller size than females, with the length‐at‐50%‐maturity (Lm 50 ) for males estimated to be 470.7 mm fork length (FL) and 531.4 mm FL for females. The spawning season in northeastern Queensland was mostly during the austral spring‐summer and peaked in December. The presence of ripe female fish and occurrence of postovulatory follicles in histological sections provided evidence that spawning activity was more pronounced during the full and third quarter moon phases. Lutjanus argentimacuiatus were highly fecund with estimates of up to 4 × 10 6 ova per spawning event. Immature fish concentrated in inshore areas where they were targeted by recreational fishers whereas, in offshore areas, commercial fishers caught predominantly lamer, mature fish.

Effects of hydro‐electrically induced water level fluctuations on benthic communities in Lake Hawea, New Zealand - R. M. Thompson; G. R. Ryder (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Artificially inducedlake level fluctuations influence benthic communities in numerous lakes, but their effects are relatively poorly understood. Littoral communities were described from three habitat types in two oligotrophic lakes in New Zealand, one subject to a natural hydrological regime with limited lake level fluctuations, the other subject to >5 m fluctuations as a result of hydro‐electric management. The fluctuated lake showed evidence of littoral compression and the replacement of macrophyte beds at shallow and intermediate depths by green filamentous algae. Macroinvertebrate biomass was higher in the fluctuated lake, despite this lake having a lower standing crop of primary producers compared with the unfluctuated lake. Disturbance of the littoral zone may reduce macrophyte biomass but may maintain high levels of primary producer productivity through an increase in benthic algae such as diatoms.

Zoogeography of the southern New Zealand, Tasmanian and southern African ascidian fauna - Carmen Primo; Elsa Vázquez (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
We studied the relationships among the ascidian fauna of southern New Zealand, Tasmania, and southern Africa, considering main currents and surface water temperature. We constructed a presence/absence matrix of 494 ascidian species from these regions (which were also divided into provinces) for 28 biogeographical worldwide regions using published records. Biogeographical areas were classified using cluster analysis combined with non‐metric multidimensional scaling ordination. The region classification separated Vema Seamount because of the low number of citations and the high number of ascidian endemism owing to an island effect. The Tasmanian, southern African and southern New Zealand regions formed separate groups. The ascidian fauna was dominated by endemic species in southern New Zealand (43%) and southern Africa (45%), whereas southern Australian species dominated the Tasmanian fauna (41%).

Diet of subtropical herbivorous fishes in northeastern New Zealand - Kendall D. Clements; W. Lindsey Zemke‐White (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Diet was examined in four species of marine herbivorous fishes in northeastern New Zealand, which for three species represents the southern end of their range. Aplodactylus etheridgii (Aplodactylidae) and Girella cyanea (Girellidae) are restricted to the subtropical southwest Pacific region, whereas Kyphosus bigibbus (Kyphosidae) is distributed antitropically in the Indian and Pacific oceans. The temperate Australasian herbivore A. arctidens was also examined for comparative purposes. Aplodactylus etheridgii and A. arctidens predominantly consumed rhodophytes (91.22% ± 4.12 SE and 72.50% ± 6.63 SE, respectively), with A. arctidens also consuming a significant proportion of chlorophytes (22.65% ± 6.91 SE), mainly Viva spp. Kyphosus bigibbus consumed predominantly phaeophytes (91.50% ± 2.69 SE), mainly Carpophyllum spp., with the remainder consisting of rhodophytes. Girella cyanea was omnivorous, consuming some animal material (12.45% ± 7.29 SE), mainly sponges and hydroids.

Deep‐basin macrobenthos of Doubtful Sound, Fiordland, New Zealand - Paul E. Brewin; P. Keith Probert; Mike F. Barker (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
The first quantitative deep‐benthic macrofaunal survey of a New Zealand fjord sampled the macrofaunal communities of 12 deep basins that are spatially subdivided along the two main axes of the Doubtful Sound complex. Within basin communities, there was high between‐sample variability of both abundance and family level alpha diversity. Despite this high variability, basin communities could be separated into high (entrance basins), medium (inner deep basins), and low (inner shallow basins) diversity communities, each having an associated characteristic change in family level beta diversity. Community groupings were comparable to previous qualitative community types described for other fjords in New Zealand. Fiord taxa appeared similar to those found on the continental shelf to the north, although there were some unique elements (Nuculanidae, Neilonellidae, Malletidae, Pronemomeniidae, Trochochaetidae), their presence supporting the notion of “emergent” species in fjord habitats. The observed differences in community composition between basins may represent differences in environmental tolerances or dispersal capabilities.

Observer effect on fisher bycatch reports in the New Zealand ling ( Genypterus blacodes ) bottom longlining fishery - Richard J. Burns; Geoffrey N. Kerr (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Reports by commercial fishers in New Zealand's ling ( Genypterus blacodes ) bottom longline fishery were analysed to identify the influence of official fishery observers on reported weights of bycatch. Observer data show that on every day ling were taken by bottom longline, both individual transferable quota (ITQ) and nonquota (non‐ITQ) bycatch were reported. However, commercial fishers reported ITQ bycatch on 82% of days fished, and non‐ITQ bycatch on only 50% of days fished. Frequencies of reported bycatch were compared for fishers’ data with and without an observer aboard for the Chatham Rise, Campbell Plateau, and Bounty Plateau areas. Significant underreporting of bycatch was indicated for some bycatch fish species in several areas in the absence of an observer. A sample selection model of reported spiny dogfish ( Squalus acanthias ) bycatch was used to model the effects of observers on whether spiny dogfish bycatch was reported at all, and the effects of observer presence and other independent variables on the quantity of spiny dogfish bycatch reported. The evidence reported here illustrates that misreporting of bycatch is common and can introduce significant errors into total catch estimation that can have serious implications for fishery sustainability.

Composition and temporal changes in macroinvertebrate communities of intermittent streams in Hawke's Bay, New Zealand - Richard G. Storey; John M. Quinn (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Macroinvertebrate communities in three stony‐bottomed intermittent headwater streams in central Hawke's Bay, New Zealand, were sampled once per month (on average) for 11 months from autumn 2005 to summer 2006, and compared with communities in three perennial streams and three intermittent streams with perennial headwaters. Among the intermittent headwater sites, 95 taxa were found, with Oligochaeta, Copepoda, Chironomidae, and Ostracoda occurring in greatest abundance. Eight mayfly, 6 stonefly and 16 caddisfly species were found. Macroinvertebrate abundance at intermittent headwater sites was equal to nearby perennial sites, but taxon richness per sample was lower. Community composition changed progressively during the autumn‐to‐spring flow period (March‐November 2005) at one intermittent headwater site, but at the other two sites a directional change was not evident, probably because stream flow stopped briefly several times during the flow period. Most of the taxa collected in riffles during the flow period were also in disconnected pools after flow stopped in summer (January 2006), but some taxa were absent and the disconnected pools contained several additional species. The disconnected pools in January had higher macroinvertebrate density and richness than connected pools during the flow period. At intermittent sites with perennial headwaters, taxon richness and EFT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera) richness were intermediate between intermittent headwater sites and perennial streams. Two weeks after flow began, the intermittent sites with perennial headwaters showed much higher EPT abundance and richness than the intermittent headwater sites, but after 8 weeks the proportional difference was less.

Fish species of New Zealand. A photographic guide. By JorgeHirt‐Chabbert. Published in 2006 by Reed Publishing (NZ) Ltd, 39 Rawene Rd, Birkenhead, Auckland 10, New Zealand (www.reed.co.nz). 136 p., softcover. ISBN‐10: 0–7900–1040–2. Price NZ$39.99. - Stuart Hanchet (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)

Stormwater runoff quality from copper roofing, Auckland, New Zealand - Sarah L. Pennington; Jenny G. Webster‐Brown (New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2008)
Copper (Cu) roofing materials have traditionally been used in New Zealand for institutional roofing, but are now increasingly used on domestic dwellings. The potential contribution to Cu contamination in urban catchment systems was assessed by measuring dissolved and acid‐soluble Cu concentrations in the runoff from three full Cu roofs, and one concrete tile roof with Cu guttering, as a function of time during multiple rain events. Full Cu roofs generated runoff with concentrations of up to 7690 μg/litre Cu, predominantly present as dissolved, free Cu 2+ owing to the low pH of the rainwater runoff. Runoff from the concrete tile roof with Cu guttering generated up to 590 μg/litre Cu, and the portion of dissolved and free Cu 2+ was less owing to the pH buffering effect of the cement‐based roofing material. A “first flush” effect was demonstrated in many rain events, where initial runoff had elevated concentrations of both dissolved Cu and particulate Cu, in the form of inorganic Cu minerals and organic Cu‐rich aggregate particles.