Bubbles formed by breaking waves in the open ocean influence many surface processes but are poorly understood. We report here on detailed bubble size distributions measured during the High Wind Speed Gas Exchange Study (HiWinGS) in the North Atlantic, during four separate storms with hourly averaged wind speeds from 10–27 m s−1. The measurements focus on the deeper plumes formed by advection downwards (at 2 m depth and below),...

The bubbles generated by breaking waves are of considerable scientific interest due to their influence on air–sea gas transfer, aerosol production, and upper ocean optics and acoustics. However, a detailed understanding of the processes creating deeper bubble plumes (extending 2–10 m below the ocean surface) and their significance for air–sea gas exchange is still lacking. Here, we present bubble measurements from the HiWinGS...

Simultaneous measurements of near-surface aerosol (0.12

The current status of meteorological sensors used aboard ships and buoys to measure the air-sea fluxes of momentum, heat, and freshwater is reviewed. Methods of flux measurement by the bulk aerodynamic, inertial dissipation and eddy-correlation methods are considered; and areas are identified where improvements are needed in measurement of the basic variables. In some cases, what is required is the transition from emergent to...