This comprehensive study establishes a detailed storm record for the Faroe Islands from 1940 to 2024 using ERA5 and NORA3 reanalysis data, as well as in situ observations. Over these 85 years, the Faroe Islands experienced 396 storms, averaging 4.8 yearly. The data revealed that storm events occur most years, with notable periods of heightened activity. The majority of storms were classified as stormy weather (20.8–24.4 m/s),...

Substantial marine, terrestrial, and atmospheric changes have occurred over the Greenland region during the last century. Several studies have documented record‐levels of Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) summer melt extent during the 2000s and 2010s, but relatively little work has been carried out to assess regional climatic changes in other seasons. Here, we focus on the less studied cold‐season (i.e., autumn and winter) climate, t...

We provide an updated analysis of instrumental Greenland monthly temperature data to 2019, focusing mainly on coastal stations but also analysing ice‐sheet records from Swiss Camp and Summit. Significant summer (winter) coastal warming of ~1.7 (4.4)°C occurred from 1991–2019, but since 2001 overall temperature trends are generally flat and insignificant due to a cooling pattern over the last 6–7 years. Inland and coastal stati...

Glacier surface mass balance ( SMB ) observations for the Andes Cordillera are limited and therefore estimates of the SMB contribution to sea‐level rise are highly uncertain. Here (in Part 3), we simulate glacier surface meteorological and hydrological conditions and trends for the Andes Cordillera (1979/80–2013/14; 35 years), covering the tropical latitudes in the north down to the sub‐polar latitudes in the far south, includ...

The spatio‐temporal freshwater river run‐off pattern from individual basins, including their run‐off magnitude and change (1979/1980–2013/2014), was simulated for the Andes Cordillera west of the Continental Divide in an effort to understand run‐off variations and freshwater fluxes to adjacent fjords, Pacific Ocean, and Drake Passage. The modelling tool SnowModel/HydroFlow was applied to simulate river run‐off at 3‐h intervals...

Snow cover presence, duration, properties, and water amount play a major role in Earth's climate system through its impact on the surface energy budget. Snow cover conditions and trends (1979–2014) were simulated for South America – for the entire Andes Cordillera. Recent data sets and SnowModel developments allow relatively high‐resolutions of 3‐h time step and 4‐km horizontal grid increment for this domain. US Geological Sur...

Snow cover extent, duration, and properties were simulated (1979/1980–2013/2014) for the Rio Olivares Basin (548 km 2 ) in central Chilean Andes, in an effort to understand conditions and trends (linear) at a basin scale. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Modern‐Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications products, together with the snow modelling software package SnowModel allowed simulations of f...

Here, we present an analysis of monthly, seasonal, and annual long‐term precipitation time‐series compiled from coastal meteorological stations in Greenland and Greenland Ice Sheet ( GrIS ) ice cores (including three new ice core records from ACT11D , Tunu2013, and Summit2010). The dataset covers the period from 1890 to 2012, a period of climate warming. For approximately the first decade of the new millennium (2001–2012) mini...

We use observed air temperature data series from 14 meteorological stations in coastal Greenland (located all around the Greenland Ice Sheet) for 1960–2010, where long‐term records for five of the stations extend back to 1890, to illustrate the annual and monthly temporal and spatial distribution of temperature extremes, with the main focus on the latest decade 2001–2010 (2000s). We find that the 2000s had the highest number o...

The NASA announcement of record surface melting of the Greenland ice sheet in July 2012 led us to examine the atmospheric and oceanic climatic anomalies that are likely to have contributed to these exceptional conditions and also to ask the question of how unusual these anomalies were compared to available records. Our analysis allows us to assess the relative contributions of these two key influences to both the extreme melt...

Correlation analysis of Greenland coastal weather station temperatures against the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) indices for the summer season (when Ice Sheet melt and runoff occur) reveals significant temporal variations over the last 100 years, with periods of strongest correlations in the early twentieth century and during recent decades. During the mid‐twentieth century, t...