Detecting subsurface changes during volcanic unrest remains challenging when surface manifestations are weak or absent. Between March and July 2022, Ruapehu volcano (New Zealand) experienced heightened seismicity, volcanic tremor, and crater lake heating, yet no eruption occurred. To monitor temporal variations in the subsurface elastic properties during this unrest episode, we estimated relative velocity changes ( $$\varvec{d...

Effective volcanic impact and risk assessment underpins effective volcanic disaster risk management. Yet contemporary volcanic risk assessments face a number of challenges, including delineating hazard and impact sequences, and identifying and quantifying systemic risks. A more holistic approach to impact assessment is required, which incorporates the complex, multi-hazard nature of volcanic eruptions and the dynamic nature of...