During liver injury, early pathological changes may go unnoticed, delaying the diagnosis until the disease has advanced to stages such as fibrosis, cirrhosis, or hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatic fibrosis is a sign of long-term liver injury that leads toward permanent liver damage. It involves the buildup of too much extracellular matrix (ECM) and is activated by hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). The transforming growth factor-β1...

Microplastics (MPs) have established complex bidirectional interactions with bacteria, encompassing both mutualism and antagonism. This review advances a unified ‘Stress‐Habitat‐Degradation’ triangular model that systematically integrates three interconnected dimensions: (1) MPs‐induced biotoxic stress on bacterial communities in water, soil, guts and plant tissues; (2) the plastisphere as a colonisation substrate that enriche...